Building technologies in ancient rome. Architecture of the Roman Empire. Arch of Titus

Roman! You learn to rule the nations sovereignly. This is your art! - to impose the conditions of peace. Mercy to the submissive to show and humble the arrogant by war.

Ancient Rome. Hundreds of articles and books have been written about him. And this is not surprising, since there are few states that would have left such a bright mark in the history of world civilization and bequeathed such a huge cultural heritage to their descendants. Its significance as a great treasury of knowledge that moves humanity forward is truly enormous.

It is not surprising that our generation is increasingly turning to Ancient Rome, while not only to the history of culture, architecture, law and military affairs, but also to the history of its technology, in particular the technology and technology of construction production, where much attention was paid to concrete construction ...

Concrete could develop and become widespread only in such a strong and huge state as was Ancient Rome with its large volumes of construction work, including the construction of thousands of amphitheaters, stadiums, thermal baths, powerful fortress walls or the famous Roman roads stretching for a thousand kilometers across the whole country and beyond. The advent of Roman concrete reflected the growing needs and technical capabilities of ancient society. Therefore, in order to better understand their influence on the development of concrete, it is necessary to briefly get acquainted with the social system of Ancient Rome, its politics, including construction and economics.

The growth and development of Ancient Rome was not only rapid, but also unparalleled. Born in the form of a small military settlement on the Palatine (One of the 7 hills on which Rome arose) in the middle of the VIII century. BC e., he gradually turned into the political and cultural center of the entire ancient world. Its initially small territory has grown over the centuries into a huge and powerful empire with hundreds of millions of inhabitants.

The borders of Rome expanded - initially at the expense of the territory of Italy, and then of neighboring countries. Foreign policy was characterized by continuous wars and was based on the famous principle of divide and conquer.

In the 60s of the III century. BC e. the Punic Wars between Rome and Carthage begin. With interruptions, they have been going on for over a hundred years. After the fall of Carthage (146 BC), when the city was burnt and destroyed by the decision of the Roman Senate, Rome became the most powerful power in the entire vast territory from Egypt and Asia Minor to the British Isles. Innumerable riches and tens of thousands of slaves flock to it, whose labor becomes the basis of the state system, a stronghold of its power for many years. Such a policy required the construction of roads, bridges, water pipes and other engineering structures, demanded even more gold and slaves.

However, along with the slaves, sharp social contradictions also came to Rome, which often exploded in uprisings against the oppressors. When they grew to such an extent that they turned into civil wars, the powerful Roman Republic reeled and, like an old building, gave its first deep crack.

There was an urgent need for the restructuring of the state system and it happened, bringing such outstanding commanders as Marius, Sulla, Pompey, Caesar to the crest of the political wave. Antony and Octavian. The latter, as you know, opens with his reign a new stage in the history of the ancient Roman state.

Composition of a characteristic Roman urban ensemble - the form bears traces of the influence of compositions greek Agora and folk dwellings.

The predominant type of developed residential building was atrium-peristyle... Usually it was located on an elongated section, fenced off from the streets by blank outer walls. The front of the house was occupied by an atrium - a closed room, on the sides of which there were living rooms and utility rooms. In the center of the atrium there was a pool, above which an open part was left in the roof for lighting and water drainage into the pool. Behind the atrium, through the tablinum, was a peristyle with a garden inside. The whole composition developed in depth along the axis with the consistent disclosure of the main spaces.

IN roman forums the same idea of \u200b\u200ba closed axial composition - an order peristyle, but enlarged to the size of a city square, was reflected. In the initial period, the forums usually served as markets and along their perimeter, shops and sometimes other public buildings were adjacent to the galleries. Over time, they turned into ceremonial squares for public meetings, ceremonies, religious activities, etc.

The ideological and compositional center was the temple located in the middle of the narrow side of the rectangular square on its main axis. Rising on the podium, he dominated the composition. In the plan, the temple had the shape of a rectangle, to which a portico was attached. A similar composition of the temple was traditional in Rome and went back to the most ancient types of temples of the Etruscan-Archaic period. In the composition of the forum, the frontal structure of the temple emphasized its deep-axial structure, and the rich portico (composite, Corinthian, less often Ionic order) accentuated the entrance to the temple. Since the republican period, several forums have been successively erected in Rome. Later, the emperors interpreted the forum as a monument to their own glory.

By its magnificence, luxury, size and complexity of the composition, it stands out forum of Emperor Trajan (architect Apollodorus Damascus, 112-117). In addition to the main square and the temple, a five-span extended hall was erected on it - basilica with an area of \u200b\u200b55x159 m and two symmetrical library buildings, between which a memorial was erected on a small square trajan's Column 38 m high. Its marble trunk is covered with a spiral ribbon of a bas-relief with 2500 figures depicting episodes of Trajan's victorious campaigns. The Arc de Triomphe serves as the main entrance, the statue of the emperor is installed in the center of the square, the temple is in its depths. Colonnades and porticoes made of marble, which were of various and sometimes huge sizes, were the main motive of the ensemble.

Built in conjunction with the forums and on the main roads, the triumphal arches are one of the most common types of memorial structures in Rome. Arched and vaulted forms were originally widespread in utilitarian structures - bridges and aqueducts.

Palace construction proceeded on a huge scale in Rome. Especially stood out imperial palace on the palatine, consisting of the palace itself for ceremonial receptions and the emperor's home. The ceremonial rooms were located around a vast peristyle courtyard. The main room - the throne room - was striking in its size.

The hall was covered with a cylindrical vault with a span of 29.3 m, which rose 43-44 m above the floor level. The main premises of the residential part were also grouped around peristyles on the terraces of the hills, using the techniques of villa construction. The construction of villas also became widespread in Rome. In addition to large palace complexes, they implemented with the greatest breadth the principles of garden and park architecture, which developed intensively from the 1st century BC. (, first half of the 2nd century, etc.).

The most grandiose public buildings in Rome, carried out during the imperial period, are associated with the development of arched-vaulted concrete structures.

Roman theaters were based on Greek traditions, but unlike Greek theaters, the seats of which were located on the natural slopes of the mountains, they were free-standing buildings with a complex substructure that supported the seats for spectators, with radial walls, pillars and staircases and passages inside the main semicircular volume ( theater of Marcellus in Rome, II century. BC, accommodating about 13 thousand spectators, etc.).

Colosseum (Coloseum) (75-80 AD) - the largest amphitheater in Rome, intended for gladiatorial fights and other competitions. Elliptical in plan (dimensions in the main axes are about 156x188 m) and grandiose in height (48.5 m), it could accommodate up to 50 thousand spectators.

In the plan, the structure is dissected by transverse and circular passages. A system of main distribution galleries was arranged between the three outer rows of pillars. A system of stairs connected the galleries with exits evenly spaced in the funnel of the amphitheater and external entrances to the building, arranged along the entire perimeter.

The constructive basis is made up of 80 radially directed walls and pillars carrying the ceiling vaults. The outer wall is made of travertine squares; in the upper part, it consists of two layers: an inner one of concrete and an outer one of travertine. Marble and knock were widely used for facing and other decorative work.

With a great understanding of the properties and work of the material, the architects combined various types of stone and concrete compositions. In the elements experiencing the greatest stresses (in pillars, longitudinal arches, etc.), the most durable material is used - travertine; the radial tuff walls are lined with bricks and partially unloaded with brick arches; the slanted concrete vault has a light pumice stone as an aggregate to lighten the weight. Brick arches of various designs penetrate the concrete thickness both in the vaults and in the radial walls. The "frame" structure of the Colosseum was functionally expedient, provided illumination of internal galleries, walkways and staircases, and was economical in terms of material costs.

The Colosseum also provides the first known example in history of a bold solution of tent structures in the form of periodically arranged cover. On the wall of the fourth tier, there are brackets that served as supports for rods, to which a giant silk awning was attached with the help of ropes, which protected the audience from the scorching rays of the sun.

The appearance of the Colosseum is monumental due to the huge size and the unity of the plastic design of the wall in the form of a multi-tiered arcade order. The system of orders gives the composition a scale and, at the same time, a special character of the relationship between the plastic and the wall. At the same time, the facades are somewhat dry, the proportions are heavy. The use of the order arcade introduced a tectonic duality to the composition: the multi-tiered order system, complete in itself, serves here exclusively for decorative and plastic purposes, creating only an illusory impression of the order frame of the building, visually facilitating its mass.

Roman baths - complex complexes of numerous premises and courtyards intended for ablution and various activities related to recreation and entertainment. In Rome, 11 large imperial baths and about 800 small private baths were built.

Pantheon in Rome (about 125) - the most perfect example of a grandiose temple-rotunda, in which the diameter of the dome reached 43.2 m.In the Pantheon, the constructive and artistic tasks of creating the largest large-span domed space in Rome (unsurpassed until the 20th century) are brilliantly solved.

The spherical vault is made with horizontal layers of concrete and rows of fired bricks, representing a monolithic mass without a frame. To lighten the weight, the dome gradually decreases in thickness towards the top, and a light aggregate - pumice crushed stone - is introduced into the concrete composition. The dome rests on a 6 m thick wall. The foundation is concrete with travertine filler. As the wall rises, travertine is replaced by lighter tuff, and in the upper part - by brick rubble. The filling of the lower zone of the dome is also crushed brick. Thus, in the construction of the Pantheon, a system of lightening the weight of the concrete aggregate was consistently carried out.

The system of unloading brick arches in the thickness of the concrete evenly distributes the forces of the dome on the abutments and relieves the wall above the niches, reducing the load on the columns. A multi-tiered system of arches with a clearly defined subordination of the main and secondary parts made it possible to rationally distribute efforts in the structure, freeing it from inert mass. She contributed to the preservation of the building despite the earthquakes.

The artistic structure of the building is determined by its structural form: a powerful domed volume outside, a single and integral space inside. The centric volume of the rotunda from the outside is interpreted as an axial frontal composition. In front of the majestic eight-column portico of the Corinthian order (the height of the columns is 14 m), there used to be a rectangular courtyard with a solemn entrance and a triumphal arch like a forum. The developed space under the portico with four rows of intermediate columns prepares the visitor for the perception of the vast interior space.

The dome, at the top of which there is a circular light opening with a diameter of 9 m, dominates the interior. Five rows of caissons decreasing upward create the impression of a domed "frame", visually lightening the array. At the same time, they give the dome plasticity and a scale commensurate with the articulations of the interior. The order of the lower tier, accentuating deep niches, effectively alternates with massive pillars faced with marble.

The attic strip, intermediate between the order and the dome, with a small scale division, contrastingly emphasizes the shapes of the dome and the main order. The expressive tectonics of the composition are combined with the effect of diffused lighting pouring down from above and the subtle color nuances created by the marble of the cladding. The rich festively majestic interior contrasts with the exterior of the Pantheon, where simplicity of monumental volume dominates.

An important place in the construction was occupied by covered halls - basilicas, which served for various kinds of meetings and sessions of the tribunal.

The following architectural eras are distinguished in the architectural traditions of Ancient Rome:

• Age of Antonines (138 - 192)
• Age of the North (193 - 217)

The era of the kings (753-510 BC) and the period of the early Republic (V-IV centuries)

The most ancient era of Roman architecture, which fell on the period of the kings (according to the ancient tradition 753-510 BC) and at the time of the early republic (V-IV centuries), is very little known to us. In any case, in those days the Romans did not show any significant creative activity in the field of creating distinctive architectural forms; during this period, Rome was culturally, and at the beginning also politically, depending on Etruria. The materials that we have not only about Roman, but also about Etruscan architecture of this time are extremely scarce.

The oldest Etruscan temples known to us date back to the 6th century. BC e. They were rectangular, elongated buildings, covered with a gable roof, with a very deep portico that occupied half of the entire building. Wooden columns were placed very far from one another; in shape they closely resemble the Dorian ones, but they had bases, a smooth trunk and a highly developed abacus.

The entablature was also made of wood and covered, like the roof of the temple, with painted relief decorations in terracotta.

This type was temple of Juno near Phalerias... A deep portico was supported by three rows of columns, six in each. On each side, the cella was framed by three columns arranged in a row. There were no premises in the temple that corresponded to a pronaos or a descriptive. The small cella was divided by longitudinal walls into three long and narrow rooms; the rear wall of the cella closed all the buildings, since its wings, protruding beyond the side walls, reached the line of the colonnades of the sides of the temple.

The temple of Juno, built in 509, was completely analogous to the plan. temple of Jupiter Capitoline, the lower parts of which have survived to the present day. The temple stood on a high platform. The three-part cella of the temple was dedicated to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva.

This early period includes the so-called Tullianum - a small, round building, originally covered with a pseudo-vault of gradually shifting stones.

Subsequently, the upper part of the vault was dismantled, and an oblong structure, covered with a semicircular vault, was erected above the Tullianum, which served as a prison in Rome.

ABOUT residential buildings of the described period, we can judge mainly by the Italian terracotta urns that reproduce the forms of huts. The oldest of these urns date back to the first centuries of the first millennium; judging by these monuments, the arrangement of the dwellings was very simple: they were round huts with a high thatched roof, reinforced with poles and twigs. Doors served as a source of light in these buildings. In this form, in the subsequent era, the Romans represented the dwelling of Romulus; apparently, the round shape of the temple of Vesta is a relic of this tradition.

In the future, a rectangular house in the plan became widespread, in the center of which there was a large room - the atrium, where the hearth was located. The rest of the rooms were located around the atrium. Perhaps initially closed, the atrium then becomes open: light penetrated the room through a hole in the roof (compluvium), and water flowed through it during the rain into a special cistern located under the compluvium (impluvium).

A rather large Etruscan urn, located in Berlin, made of limestone, gives us an idea of \u200b\u200bthe external appearance of houses of this type.

One of the earliest houses of Pompeii, known as Casa del Chirurgo, in its oldest part, built of limestone and dating no later than the 3rd century. BC e., is a building of the described type. The atrium, located in the center of this house, had a girder ceiling, which was supported exclusively by the walls and had no supports in the form of pillars or columns.

Both in the early period and at a later time, the atrium is a ceremonial room. In it, the Roman nobili kept, according to the right granted to them, portraits of their ancestors.

The phenomenon that we can observe throughout Roman architecture, namely the significantly more secular nature of the latter in comparison with Hellenic architecture, where religious buildings occupy a leading position, is also reflected in the era we are considering. Even at the end of the 4th century. censor Appius Claudius the famous great road is being built ( Via Appia), water pipelines are under construction ( Aqua appia), bridges, etc.

Via Appia

It is extremely difficult to establish where the art of building vaults, which has long been known in the East, came to Rome: did it penetrate directly from the Hellenistic world or did it become known in Rome thanks to the Etruscans? The oldest known vaults in Etruria date back to the 4th century. BC e.

One of the examples of such an Etruscan structure is dating back to the 3rd century. richly decorated gate of Perugia (Porta Marzia), covered with a semicircular vault made of a large number of wedge-shaped blocks.

Cloaca maxima (an underground canal that served to drain water from the area of \u200b\u200bthe swampy forum), built around 184 BC. e. (?), was covered with a vault of wedge-shaped stones.

A striking example of bridge building of the era of the republic is the large bridge, built in 110, which had several spans, the vaults of which were laid out of wedge-shaped blocks.

The era of the republic. III - II century BC

Since the III century. a turning point begins in the cultural life of Rome. Rome is gradually beginning to be included in the orbit of the Hellenistic culture. In the second half of the 3rd century. Livy Andronicus translates the Odyssey into Latin and lays the foundation for Latin tragedy and comedy, which he created after Hellenic models. At the same time, the activity of Nevius proceeded and, somewhat later, Ennius and Plautus, who created the Roman national literature, making the most extensive use of the artistic heritage of Hellas.

Apparently, similar phenomena occurred in the architecture of this time. In any case, dating back to the 3rd century. BC e. found in the tomb of the Scipios on Via Appia a large sarcophagus made of a gray cape, on which a long epitaph is written to L. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus, is decorated with purely Hellenic architectural ornamentation. Above the profiled base is a wide, smooth field similar to the Dorian architrave; above, a Dorian triglyph frieze, in which the metopes are decorated with rosettes; the cornice rising under the frieze is decorated with Ionian denticles. We have already met this kind of combination of elements of the Dorian and Ionian orders in the architecture of southern Italy of the Hellenistic time: in the entablature of the temple of the III-II century. in Poseidonia (Paestume).

During the II century. in Rome, a number of structures appeared, similar in type to the buildings of the Hellenistic cities. Around 159, the censor Scipio Nasik surrounds temple of Jupiter Capitoline colonnades; special market premises are built, which served for trade and legal proceedings, basilicas (about 185 BC - Basilica porcia, in 179 - Basilica Aemilia).

With the beginning of the second half of the 2nd century. BC e. related activities Hermogenes of Salamis, apparently the first to use marble in Rome in the construction of temples Jupiter Stator and Juno Regina.

From this time we have Polybius's testimony of the plan that the Roman troops always strictly and unswervingly adhered to when setting up the camp. Due to the lack of space, we cannot give a detailed description of it and will restrict ourselves only to indicating that the entire layout system was built along straight lines intersecting at right angles. Wide straight streets, arranged in a uniform network, divided the camp into regular sections, each of which occupied a separate detachment. In general, the plan of the Roman camp is very similar to the layout of the Hellenistic city (cf. Priene or Alexandria). It should be noted, however, that we meet with the same “correct” layout of the city quite early in Etruria, for example, in the city of the 5th century, located near Marzabotto, near Bologna.

By the II century. and the very beginning of the 1st century. BC e. include tuff monuments from the next construction period of Pompeii, on which the Hellenization of the Italian house can be clearly traced. An example of the latter is one of the large and complex houses, usually called Casa del Fauno... It has two entrances, one close to the other, each of which leads to a special atrium. One of these atriyas is of the old (Tuskulan) type with beamed ceilings resting on the walls, the other is of the new type (tetrastile), in which the ceiling, in addition to the walls, rests on four more columns standing near the corners of the impluvium.

Both atriums are surrounded on all sides by small rooms. Behind the atrias, in the next part of the house, there was a large open rectangular peristyle framed by small rooms. The edges of the roof of this peristyle supported 28 (7x9) columns of the Ionian order, bearing the Dorian entablature; finally, behind this peristyle was a second peristyle, large in size, framed by a two-tiered colonnade (13 × 11 columns). The lower columns were of the Dorian order, the upper ones were of the Ionian order. A garden was placed in the second peristyle.

The walls of the house were covered with plaster and decorated with paintings of the so-called first Pompeian style. This style is usually called incrustation because it imitates the wall cladding with multi-colored rocks of marble.

In the II century. Greece became a Roman province. This opened up the widest possibilities for the penetration of Hellenic culture into Rome. Countless art treasures were taken away by the winners as trophies. A large number of educated Greeks, usually as slaves, appeared in Rome.

Temples of the II century. clearly indicate the gradually increasing Hellenization. Built at the beginning of the II century. small temple in Gabiyah, about 24 m long and about 18 m wide, still has a blank back wall typical of Italian temples; the elongated cella is framed on three sides by columns, the number of which is six from the facade, and seven from the sides; but the depth of the front portico is already noticeably reduced. The columns of the temple have survived only in the lower parts, and, judging by the flutes of the trunks and the profiling of the bases, they could have been of the Ionian or Corinthian order.

Much more Hellenized, built in the II century. temple of Apollo in Pompeii, which was a Corinthian peripter, on the short sides of which there were six, and on the long sides - ten columns. A small cella of the temple was strongly moved away from the front facade, but at the same time, some space was left between the rear wall of the cella and the rear facade. The temple stood on a high platform; a not very wide staircase led to it from the front.

The era of Sulla (early 1st century BC)

From sulla era (beginning of the 1st century BC) several temples have come down to us. IN Kore the front part of the temple of the Dorian order, which stood on a high podium, is well preserved. There were four columns on the front façade, and three on the sides; of the cella, only the front wall and the beginning of the side walls have survived.

Set far apart from one another, the Dorian columns are distinguished by extremely dry, highly elongated proportions. The columns stand on small bases. The trunks are fluted only in the middle and upper parts, in the lower they only have edges corresponding to the flutes. The capitals are very small: echinas are not noticeable, abacus are narrow.

Entablature dorian order it differs greatly from classical buildings in its exceptionally light proportions. The height of the architrave is significantly less than the height of the frieze. There are four metopes for each intercom, with very narrow triglyphs in between. Due to the lightness of the architrave, the cornice seems heavy. The well-preserved pediment has rather steep slopes.

By the beginning of the 1st century. BC e. relate two temples in Tibura (Tivoli): pseudo-peripter and round. First, apparently dedicated to Sibylla, was built of travertine and tuff and covered with plaster. It stood on a low podium and was a small temple of the Ionian order, which had four columns on the front side. The deep portico of the temple, located behind these columns, was framed on both sides by antes extended by one intercolumn from the walls of the cella, ending in incomplete columns. The rest of the temple was occupied by a large single-nave elongated cella, the walls of which were decorated with half-columns on the outside: there were four of them on the back facade, and five on the sides (including antae).

In this pseudo-peripter we can already observe one characteristic feature, which will later become widespread in Roman architecture: the use of a column, which in Hellenic architecture performed purely constructive tasks, only as a decorative element that dismembers and revives the surface of the wall.

The second temple, apparently dedicated to Vesta, was also a small (diameter about 14 m) round building, standing on a podium and framed by eighteen columns of the Corinthian order. The light entablature consisted of a narrow architrave, decorated with an embossed frieze, and a simple and strict cornice. The round cella of the temple had a wide door on the southwest side, on either side of which there were two narrow windows. A narrow staircase led to the door leading to the rise of the podium. In type, the building is very close to the round Greek structures of the 4th century, but differs in the greater ease of proportions of the Corinthian colonnade. At the same time, in the circular plan of this building, one cannot fail to note the presence of a local tradition dating back to primitive round huts.

Travertine was used on the facing of the podium, on the columns, entablature, door and window frames; as for the rest of the parts, that is, the bulk of the podium and walls of the cella, the latter were built from small irregular fragments of tuff and travertine on a lime mortar. This technique of building walls on mortar was later widely used in Roman architecture.

1st century BC e. was the time of the Romanization of Italy. Old local Italic cultures in this era were finally broken. But at the same time, the already begun process of Rome's perception of Hellenistic culture, which penetrates wider and deeper than it had been two centuries earlier, intensified more and more. Lucretius and Cicero transfer Greek philosophy to Roman soil, Varion - science, Catullus - poetry.

During this era, a number of buildings were erected in Rome, many of them being built with exceptional luxury. In 78 BC. e. was built Tabular (Senate archive), in which arched ceilings were combined with a colonnade - a technique that received the widest application in the future and became one of the most characteristic features of Roman architecture. In all likelihood, the combination of these two elements took place in the appearance begun in 54 BC. basilica Juliastanding on Forum Romanum... The layout of the buildings at the Forum was comparatively free.

By the 1st century. BC e. a small Ionian pseudo-peripter - a temple Mater Matuta (Fortuna Virilis) in Rome. The type of this temple is close to the pseudo-peripter in Tibure; it had a fairly deep six-column portico, framed from the front by four columns, there were no ants in the portico, and its sides were completely open. The rest of the temple was occupied by a cella, the walls of which were decorated with half-columns on the outside: there were four of them on the back wall, and five on the side ones.

The temple stood on a low podium. It was a curious combination of the structure of an old Italic temple with a deep portico and a recessed cell with the forms of the construction of the Ionian order. Its outline was simple and austere, in keeping with the style of Roman sculpture of that time (Pasitel's school).

Age of Augustus (30 BC - 14 AD)

30 BC e. opens a new stage in Roman history: this is the time of the beginning of the principate. At the same time, in the same year, the last of the remaining independent Hellenistic states - Egypt - became part of the Roman state. In the era of Augustus (30 BC - 14 AD) intensive construction develops in Rome; dozens of luxurious buildings are being restored and erected, in which the previously almost unused marble is widely used. Augustus is proud that he took Rome in clay and left in marble.

A number of monuments erected in this era are directly associated with the emperor and have as their purpose to glorify his activities.

In 2 BC. e. construction was completed temple of Mars Ultor (Temple of mars ultor). This rather large temple of the Corinthian order had eight columns on the front facade. The front portico of the temple was very deep. The pushed back cella was framed on the sides by colonnades. On the back side, the temple was closed by a blank wall, which formed a rather large apse opposite the entrance to the cella.

Temple of Mars was the main building forum August... On three sides it was framed by magnificent colonnades, and opposite the sides of the temple, there were semicircular extensions behind them. The Hellenistic method of organizing the inner space of the square by means of a colonnade was carried out here with exceptional symmetry, which, as we will see later, is a characteristic feature of the layout of the architectural ensembles of the Roman Empire.

An exceptionally clear idea of \u200b\u200bthe temple architecture of the Augustus era can be given by the erected in 4 AD. e. temple in nimesknown as Maison carree... Standing on a high podium, this Corinthian pseudo-peripter has a deep ten-column portico, with six columns on the front façade. The large cella of the temple is decorated with semi-columns on the outer sides. Light architrave crowns the colonnade, the frieze is covered with relief ornaments, the cornice is carefully decorated.

The decoration of the cornice of the Temple of Concordia, built in 10 AD, is no less splendid. e. in Rome and frieze of the temple in Pyla.

In general, it can be noted that the temple in Nîmes, apparently, like other buildings of the Augustus era, has a ceremonial decorated appearance, which sharply distinguishes it from the simple and strict temple of Mater Matuta. In exactly the same way can be compared statue of august (Prima porta) with sculptures of the late republic (for example, the Vatican statue of a Roman in a toga).

This desire to give an architectural monument a magnificent character was, apparently, the reason for the domination of Roman architecture, starting from the era of Augustus, the Corinthian order. This can also be related to the frequent use of the column as a purely decorative element.

Roman society of this time viewed art as an object of luxury and the most refined comfort; This understanding of art is fully consistent with the concentration of exceptional attention in architecture on decorating the building, the desire to make it as ornate as possible, and the widest use of decorative, often hedonistic in content (statues of satyrs, Bacchus, Venus, etc.) sculpture in houses, villas, parks, etc.

This hedonism in art answers, just as it once took place in Greece, and hedonism in philosophy. Back in the 1st century. BC e. Lucretius wrote his poem De rerum natura, in which he expounded the teachings of Epicurus, which received wide recognition among a significant part of the upper circles of Roman society.

At the same time, such structures as the temple in Nîmes, despite all the proximity to their Greek temple, are fundamentally different from it in the absence of a stepped pedestal characteristic of the Hellenic peripter, giving the whole “heroic proportions”, which we spoke about above. The mythological outlook so characteristic of Hellenic culture was alien to the Romans even after their perception of Hellenic mythology and the religion of the Olympic pantheon.
The usual staircase leading to the temple in Nimes, on the contrary, emphasizes the purely anthropic nature of the building, which fully corresponds to the teachings of Epicurus.

Also noteworthy is the fundamentally excellent character of the ornaments that adorned Hellenic and Roman buildings. The conventional geometrized planar ornament of the Greek temple, if it contains some motifs taken from the plant world, gives them in such a highly revised form that they do not fundamentally differ from the linear elements of the decorations (see the Parthenon ornaments). In Roman ornament, plant motifs fully retain living organic forms, which clearly testifies to the more realistic nature of Roman decorative art (see the frieze of the temple in Paul and the ornaments of the altar of Peace Augustus). This more realistic character, wholly in keeping with the sober practicalism of the Romans, was expressed in statuary sculpture: a sculptural portrait occupies the same dominant position in Roman art as a typifying statue of an athlete in Greek; the character of the Roman religion corresponds to this, where, in contrast to the transcendental animism characteristic of Greece, immanent animism persisted for a long time.

In 13-9 years. BC e. was built altar of Peace Augustus (Ara paris augustae), which was a small rectangular building (11.6 × 10.6 m), surrounded by a high wall, completely covered with rich decoration; on the walls below there were wide belts of relief ornament, and above, there was a relief zophor (Corinthian pilasters were in the corners). From the east and west, the wall was interrupted by a wide door, to which a small staircase led. In the center of the structure was the altar itself. The entire structure was made of marble from the moon.

The task of constructing the altar of Peace to Augustus is close to that which the builders of the grandiose Pergamon altar were solving; but a quick glance is enough to see how different the two monuments are. The external decoration of the Pergamon altar is still built on the principle of peripter, although the colonnade is placed on a high pedestal decorated with high reliefs. The Altar of Peace is bounded by a solid, richly decorated wall. This principle of accentuating the wall, often combined not with a straight one, but with a vaulted ceiling, is one of the most characteristic phenomena in Roman architecture. He found a vivid expression in the triumphal arches, a number of which were built in the era of Augustus.

Built in 8 BC is distinguished by rather simple forms. e. single-span arch in Sousse... The large passage (8.75 m high and 5 m wide) is framed by a semicircular vault, accentuated by a triple fillet, and smooth walls, which are enlivened by incomplete Corinthian columns at the corners of the building and flat pilasters flanking the passage. The columns support a Corinthian entablature with a frieze decorated with reliefs. A small smooth attic rises above the cornice, continuing the main surface of the lower wall.

More abundantly decorated triumphal arch near St. Remy, the upper part of which has not been preserved. It has increased the number of incomplete side columns and embossed decorations.

In the triumphal arch, in addition to the aforementioned accentuation of the wall and vaulted ceiling characteristic of Roman architecture, another no less typical phenomenon can be noted: the relegation of the column and the entablature supported by it, which played such an important constructive role in Hellenic architecture, to the degree of purely decorative elements that should only dismember and revitalize the surface of the wall.

The colonnade galleries, which are so characteristic of Hellenistic architecture, were also built in the era of Augustus. We have already mentioned one of them, which framed the temple of Mars Ultor. The staged as early as the 2nd century was distinguished by its especially grandiose dimensions. BC e. and the "portico of Octavia" rebuilt under Augustus; it contained up to three hundred columns of the Corinthian order and a large number of works of sculpture and painting.
In 11 BC. e. it was built that has come down to us in a badly damaged form, made of travertine theater of Marcellus... In contrast to the Greek theaters, which, in essence, are only an adaptation for the auditorium of a convenient for this purpose hillside, in front of which the corresponding stage buildings were erected, the Roman theater is an architectural monument of the usual type, inside which there are stage structures and gradually rising seats for spectators.

The theater of Marcellus, very monumental in form, had a typical external appearance for Roman civil buildings: rhythmically repeated, powerful pillars arranged in two tiers interspersed with high semicircular arches of the vaults. The pillars and the parts of the walls above them were decorated with columns that had a purely decorative purpose that supported the entablature: in the first tier - the Dorian order (with a cornice decorated with a denticle) and in the second - the Ionian order.
Of undoubted interest are the tombstones of the Augustan era, distinguished by a wide variety of forms. Apparently, the tombstone of Cestius, who died in 12 BC, is a kind of echo of the inclusion of Egypt in the Roman state and the associated introduction of artistic values \u200b\u200b(compare, for example, the third Pompeian style). e. It has the shape of a fairly high tetrahedral pyramid. The monument was built of bricks and faced with marble.

The tombstone of the bread supplier M. Virgil Yevrisak, erected in the same era, was a very peculiar structure: in the lower part of the building there were massive square and round pillars supporting the high walls of the building. The smooth surface of these walls was enlivened by special fillets, denoting the throats of sourdoughs or the crowns of pithos for stocks; above there was a narrow relief frieze and cornice. In this monument, very original in form, one cannot fail to note the peculiar manifestation of those aspirations for realism in Roman architecture, which we have already spoken about.

In the tombstone monument to the Julians in St. Remy all the characteristic features of the architecture of the Augustan era are concentrated. A plinth lined with reliefs rises on a square stepped pedestal; on it stands a tetrapylon - a gate that opens in all four directions. At the corners of the tetrapylon are Corinthian columns supporting the entablature; finally, the whole building is crowned with a rotunda of the Corinthian order.

Located on Via Appia mausoleum of Cecilia Metella (Mausoleo di Cecilia Metella) is a massive, tower-like structure of a cylindrical shape. The undivided smooth walls of this monument gave the impression of irresistible power. In the mausoleum of Augustus and his family, we find a similar motif of a large (88 m in diameter), massive, tower-like structure made of marble, which here serves as the crepe of a tree-lined mound.
Along with the magnificent mausoleums that served as the graves of the emperor and the public top, more modest underground crypts-columbariums have come down to us, which were rectangular rooms, the walls of which were completely covered with small niches, where urns with the ashes of the dead were placed.

Of the residential buildings of this time, we will mention libya's house on the Palatine, decorated with paintings corresponding to the second Pompeian style (architectural), used in the era of the late republic and the beginning of the principate. A characteristic feature of this style is the revitalization of the wall surface through the application of architectural details (columns, pilasters, etc.). The main surface of the wall imitates cladding; in addition, separate pictures are assembled.

Along with the second style, in the era of Augustus, the third Pompeian style was also used for painting houses. It is distinguished by the predominance of ornament, in the spirit of which the architectural elements of the painting are also processed; the abundance of Egyptian motives is also characteristic in this style.

Finally, it should be noted that in the era of Augustus, a number of buildings of a purely utilitarian purpose were built. An example is the grandiose agrippa aqueduct near Nimes(known as Pont du gard), the length of which reaches 269 m.

The Julian-Claudian dynasty (15 - 68 AD)

From the architecture of the time of the closest successors of Augustus (the Julian-Claudian dynasty), few monuments have come down to us. Let's dwell on the most important of them.

In 21 A.D. e. was dedicated Tiberius(possibly built earlier) triumphal arch in orange... Quite significant in size (its height is 18 m, width is 19.5), it has three spans, of which the middle one is larger than the lateral ones. The arch is decorated with attached incomplete Corinthian columns, four on each side, with a simple and strict entablature, complex profiling of architectural parts and numerous relief decorations.

Epoch Claudia (41-54) was marked mainly by grandiose constructions of a utilitarian order, such as the great harbor in Ostia, unfinished drainage tunnel at 5540 m long, carried to Lake Fuqing, finally Aqua claudia - the largest of the aqueducts of the city of Rome.

Emperor Nero's "Golden House", preserved premises

The most famous of the buildings Nero (54-68) - built after a big fire in 64 by architects North and Celer « House of gold» ( Domus_Aurea)... This huge residence, covering an area of \u200b\u200babout 50 hectares, contained a large palace, built with exceptional luxury, a park, an artificial pond; the ensemble included a colossal (35 m high) bronze statue of the emperor by Zenodora.

Domus_Aurea. Emperor Nero's Golden House. Preserved part accessible to the public / Column of Nero

We can judge about the magnificent decoration of the Golden House only by the insignificant remains of the secondary parts of Nero's residence, as well as, to a certain extent, by the richest Pompeian houses of the same time. This is an era when the fourth style dominates in Pompeii, the characteristic features of which are an abundance of architectural elements of a completely fantastic, whimsical character and a bright, brilliant color.

Age of Flavians (69-96) Age of Trajan (98-117) - Hadrian (117-138)

In the era Trajan (98-117), the construction of buildings of a purely utilitarian nature - roads, bridges, water pipes, harbors, etc. - was especially lively. At the same time, attention was paid to the residential areas of the city. The frequent collapses of large houses caused an order forbidding the construction of multi-storey buildings more than 20 meters high.

In 107-113. in Rome built by an architect Apollodorus from Damascus grand trajan's forum, which in ancient times was considered one of the main attractions of the capital. It is slightly inferior in area to all other Roman forums combined.

Trajan's Forum, like the forums of other emperors, had a symmetrical layout of buildings. A large triumphal arch served as the entrance to a square courtyard (the sides of which reached 126 m). In the center of the courtyard was Trajan's equestrian statue; on the sides it was framed by colonnades, behind which were semicircular exedra. Along the side of the courtyard farthest from the entrance stood a large five-nave basilica Ulpia, which had a gilded bronze roof. Behind the basilica was a small square, flanked by two small library buildings on the sides. In the center of this square stood Trajan's tall column. Finally, the entire structure was closed by the colonnaded temple of Trajan, erected by his successor Hadrian. From these numerous structures to the present, with the exception of trajan's columns, only miserable remains have survived.

Delivered in 113-114. Trajan's Column was a very peculiar commemorative monument, which at the same time served as the emperor's burial vault. On a high square pedestal decorated with reliefs stood a grandiose column, equipped with a massive base and a light Dorian capital; its trunk was covered with a spirally curved relief belt representing "Trajan's wars with the Dacians." Above the capital is a high round pedestal on which Trajan's statue once stood.

Inside the column was a spiral staircase that led up to a small platform located above the capital and circling the statue's pedestal.

Intensive construction took place in the Trajan era and in the provinces. We will restrict ourselves to mentioning the arisen at the beginning of the II century. African city Timgade, laid out according to a plan reminiscent of Roman camps. The city was richly decorated with large colonnades. One of the best preserved monuments is the three-span triumphal arch; the question of dating it to the era of Trajan or a later time is not yet resolved.

Burned down in 110 Pantheonlined up Agrippa in 27 BC e. Its restoration was entrusted Apollodorus of Damascus, which during the years 115-125. rebuilt the building. Mainly built of brick and mortar, the Pantheon has come down to us in very good condition, only slightly distorted by later alterations.

The temple was a grandiose, round structure, covered with a dome and equipped with a large portico. The division of the interior of the church is strictly symmetrical. The lower floor of the walls is divided into eight parts by alternating four rectangular and three semicircular niches. Opposite the middle semicircular niche there is a cut of the entrance arch close to it in shape.

Each of the niches was once separated from the central space by two large columns of the Corinthian order, which supported a rather simple entablature with a smooth frieze; only in the niche opposite the exit, these columns are strongly moved apart and frame it from the sides, and the entablature runs along the concave line of the wall.

Framed by Corinthian pilasters, the wide, smooth piers between the niches were enlivened by small edicules placed in front of them. The second tier lying above the entablature was dismembered by mighty semicircular arches above the niches; between them there was a wide surface of the wall. The horizontal profiling separated the second tier from the grandiose hemispherical dome, the surface of which in the lower and middle parts was enlivened by five rows of large cassettes. The upper part of the dome, devoid of cassettes, framed a large round window (9 m in diameter), which boldly ended the building.

The diameter of the interior of the Pantheon was 43.5 m, and the height was 42.7 m. The complex division of the inner side of the walls and the dome of the Pantheon, enhanced by the richness and variety of interior decoration, was sharply opposed by the exceptional simplicity of the building's exterior.

It is a grandiose cylindrical vestibule, over which the dome of the temple rises. The surface of the walls of the vestibule is divided by horizontal ties into three tiers, with the first and the second strictly corresponding to the corresponding internal divisions of the building. The third floor is located at the level of the two lower rows of the dome cassettes. The purpose of the wall of this tier is to help counteract the enormous force of the dome expansion. The third floor covers the lower part of the dome, which makes the latter appear flat. The dome was covered with a gilded roof that has not survived to this day.

The entrance to the Pantheon leads through a large deep portico, which was rebuilt during the II century. In its present form, it has eight columns of the Corinthian order crowned with a high pediment (the remains of the foundation indicate that there were once ten of them). The colonnade of the facade is followed by four rows of columns - two in each, dividing the portico into three longitudinal compartments. The entrance to the cella is flanked by two ledges of walls that form niches; these parts of the building are decorated with Corinthian pilasters.

Our description of the Pantheon clearly indicates that the focus of the architect's attention was not on the external design of the building, since the outside of the building is given in the simplest, so to speak, laconic forms: it is a smooth wall, in the cutting of which the architect is limited to horizontal division, corresponding to the division of the internal parts of the building.

The main problem that was put forward and resolved in the Pantheon is the problem of organizing internal space. This space was given to the strictly centric and, moreover, was limited for the viewer, who was in the center of the building, not by straight walls and a ceiling covered with beams, as was the case in a Greek temple, but by a soft curved line of a ring of walls and a hemisphere of a dome.

This special spatiality of the Pantheon, which is the result of a rounded framing, is fully met by the lighting of the building, which is not the usual side (through the door) in ancient architecture, but the upper one through the round window located at the zenith of the dome. Such lighting provided a soft diffused light that did not reveal, but smoothed out contrasts, thus contributing to the fact that the complex architectural division of the walls and ceiling produced a purely decorative impression.

Hadrian's Villa in Tibure

In the building of the Pantheon, especially from the outside, there is a pronounced statement of the wall as the main architectural element. This accentuation of the wall is one of the manifestations of the desire for realism in Roman architecture, which we have already talked about many times. If in the altar of Peace of Augustus the wall appeared in a disguised form, completely covered with embossed decorations, then in the Pantheon it is given in all its purity and spontaneity.

The smooth impenetrable surface of the wall to an incomparably greater extent meets the practical and artistic task of isolating the building from the surrounding space than the colonnades of the Hellenic peripter (even if structurally necessary), which makes the forms of Roman architecture incomparably more realistic than the forms of Hellenic architecture.

Noteworthy is the purpose of the temple to serve as a place of worship not for one deity, but for the entire set of gods. This phenomenon is associated with the gradual inclusion in the orbit of the Roman religion of all the main cults that existed on the vast territory of the empire, and corresponds to the philosophy of this era. At this time, the doctrine of the Stoics, who advocated cosmopolitanism and put forward the position that all people constitute a single organism, were widely spread.
In the years 123-126. Trajan's successor Adrian (117-138) a grandiose villa in Tibure (Tivoli), which was a complex complex of buildings. Individual parts of the villa were supposed to perpetuate Hadrian's memories of his travels in Greece and the East, reproducing Stoa poikile, Academy, Lyceum, Canopus, Tempe Valley. This desire to repeat some of the famous structures of ancient architecture fully meets the classicist tendencies that prevailed in the art of the period under consideration, which at the same time had a touch of romance.

During the era of Hadrian, extensive restoration work was carried out on Forum Romanum... In 135, a large temple of Venus and Roma... Framed by porticoes, the temple stood on a platform 145 m long and 100 m wide. The podium, usual for Roman temples, was absent; instead, the temple was surrounded by steps on all sides.

The temple was a peripter of the Corinthian order, which had ten columns on the front sides and twenty columns on the long ones. The interior of the temple was divided by transverse walls into two cells. In front of each of them there was a four-column portico (pronaos) in antae. The floor in the cellas was higher than in the porticoes. In the middle of the back wall of each cella there was a large semicircular niche; they were separated from one another by a common wall. In one of these niches a statue of Roma was placed, in the other - Venus. The long walls of the cella were decorated with colonnades and niches. Both cellas, as well as the porticoes in front of them, were covered with vaults, which was in a certain contradiction with the gable roof of the temple.

The walls of the temple were built of bricks; marble was widely used for cladding; the decoration was distinguished by great luxury.

From what has been said, it is clear that the temple of Venus and Roma is a very pretentious monument of a kind of Greco-Roman eclecticism, which marks those classicistic aspirations of the era, which we have already mentioned above. This temple was as far from the works of Hellenic architecture, the heyday of the latter, as the statue of Adrian's favorite, the young Bithinian Antinous, from the sculptures of the classical period representing athletes.

Relatively well preserved, built in 132-139: Moles (mausoleum) Adriananow known as Castello St. Angelo... This grandiose, once richly decorated monument was a square plinth on which stood a tower-like vestibule topped with a rotunda.

A number of outstanding architectural monuments are being built in the era of Hadrian and in the Roman provinces.

Athens ends temple of Olympian Zeus, not completed by Antiochus Epiphanes and then destroyed. A number of new buildings are being constructed around this building, forming “ Hadrian's city”, Which was connected to the“ old ”city by large gates (18 m high and 13.5 m wide), made of Pentelikon marble.

In the lower tier, which was a solid wall framed on the sides by Corinthian pilasters, a large passage was cut. The passage was flanked by pilasters, also of the Corinthian order, but of a smaller size, over which a profiled fillet ran along the arch. Corinthian columns stood between the large and small pilasters on special pedestals, supporting the protrusions of the entablature that crowned the lower level of the gate.

The very light through upper tier consisted of Corinthian columns and pillars supporting the entablature, the middle part of which was crowned with a pediment. In this monument we again find the attempt already noted by us to give a peculiar combination of Greek and Roman elements in exquisitely refined forms.

The surviving parts are much more monumental in character hadrian's Libraries in Athens... A row of round Corinthian columns stretching along the solid wall has reached us. A very peculiar entablature crowns the wall and forms small protrusions above the columns, corresponding to the shape of the capitals. We already met this technique of reviving the wall earlier on the Nerva forum.

Among other buildings of Adrian, we note a grandiose, very peculiar in terms of plan temple in Kizik... This temple was a peripter, which had six columns on the front and fifteen on the long sides. A small cella, which had two doors facing the front and rear facades, was the only interior of the temple. The large free space between the cella and both facades was filled with columns, the total number of rows of which was five on the front side, and three on the back.

Age of Antonines (138 - 192)

Construction activity under Adrian's successors Antonines (138-192) is much paler than in the first decades of the 2nd century. This does not affect buildings that have a purely utilitarian purpose, the construction of which is very intensive, but from this era to us almost no monuments that would have been of great importance in the development of the style of Roman architecture have survived.

When Antonine Pie (138-161) on the Roman Forum was built faustina's templedecorated with a colonnade. The front part of this temple has been preserved. The portico was framed by large columns of the Corinthian order, made of light green marble; there were six of them on the front and three on the sides. The light entablature was decorated with a narrow relief frieze.

Erected in Rome column of Marcus Aurelius (161-180) did not represent anything new in architectural terms, being mainly a repetition of Trajan's Column.

In the era of the Antonines, a number of buildings were built in Greece by the rich orator Herod Atticus; note Odeon (indoor theater) in Athens and Exedru at Olympia; the latter was a semicircular building with a semi-domed ceiling, framed on the sides by wings. This building was in sharp disharmony with the whole ensemble in Altis.

The grandiose construction begun under Antoninus Pius belongs to the era of the Antonines. complex of the acropolis of Heliopolis (Baalbek). It reached a length of almost 300 m and consisted of a colossal temple and a number of premises in front of it, located strictly symmetrically.

A wide staircase led to the twelve-column portico of the propylaea, very wide in front, but not deep; from there three doors led into a hexagonal courtyard framed by colonnades, on the opposite side of which there were also three doors to the next large square courtyard, framed on three sides by colonnades. The back side of the courtyard was closed by a large temple.

It was a colossal peripter, with ten columns on the front sides and nineteen on the long sides. Columns up to 19 m high stood on large bases; smooth trunks were crowned with lush Corinthian capitals. The light Corinthian entablature was richly ornamented with decorations that, like the column caps, had a restless dynamic character.

South of the great temple was second peripter, much smaller; on the short sides of this temple there were eight columns and on the long ones - fifteen columns. The height of the columns was 16 m. The temple stood on a high podium; from the east, a staircase led to it, behind which there was a deep portico. Pronaos was framed by antes; a richly ornamented door led from it to the cella. In the depths of the cella there was a wide staircase, along which they climbed to the adyton.

The inner sides of the side walls of the cella were enlivened by the Corinthian columns attached to them. The columns stood on special plinths and had small bases, fluted trunks and very lush capitals. Along the wall, above the pillars, ran the same stepped entablature as in the Forum of Nerva. In the intervals between the columns there were niches and tabernacles located in two tiers, which gave the walls a resemblance to the facade of the stage of Roman theaters.

Overloaded with ponderous luxurious decorations full of restless dynamics, the grandiose buildings of Heliopolis have a solemn, somewhat pompous character.

It is interesting to compare these phenomena in architecture with the sculptural portrait of the Antonine era; the contrasting juxtaposition of the form gives it a restless character, which is enhanced by the play of chiaroscuro, sometimes creating purely decorative effects.

Age of the North (193 - 217)

When Septimius Sever (193-211) great restoration work was carried out in Rome. Of the newly built structures, the most prominent place was occupied by the palace, the entrance to which was decorated with a grandiose three-tier curtain, called Septizodium (or Septizonium), erected in 203. It was a complex combination of arrays of walls, arches and columns, and in addition was richly decorated with sculpture; fountains were also added to the composition.

The large (23 m high) three-span archerected in honor of Septimius Severus and his sons, Getae and Caracalla... The spans of the arch were framed by Corinthian fluted pilasters and Corinthian columns, which stood on special pedestals and supported the protrusions of the entablature. The pedestals of the columns were decorated with reliefs; on the walls, between the columns, the reliefs that completely covered them were located in several rows. Contrasted with this overwhelming ornamentation of the lower middle parts of the building was the smooth surface of the long-inscription attic.

Caracalla (211-217) completed the baths begun by his father. This grandiose, well-equipped, luxuriously decorated building was located in a large (350 m long) almost square park, framed on all sides by buildings. The Baths of Caracalla represented a complex complex of various premises, strictly symmetrically located and giving a combination of variously organized volumes and spaces.

Quite significant remains of walls, vaults and pillars have been preserved from the baths. As for the architectural decorations related to the terms, the use of a Corinthian capital with a sculptural image of Hercules in it is worthy of mention.

In the era of the North, there was intensive construction activity in North Africa, as a result of which a number of camp cities emerged. Among them, especially interesting Tebessa, where at the beginning of the III century. a small (9 m wide, 14.7 m long) temple of the Corinthian order was built.

The temple had a rather deep six-column portico, with four columns standing along the facade; the walls of the cella are decorated with pilasters on the outside. The pompous capitals of the columns and pilasters are matched by the abundance of embossed ornaments of the entablature, completely covering not only the frieze, but also the architrave; these decorations do not go in a continuous ribbon and are divided according to the columns by special caesuras.

Of other buildings in Tebessa, we will indicate more triumphal arch, erected in 214 in honor of Caracalla... This arch is single-span, but it opens with a gate not in two, but in four directions (tetrapil).

Final stage (270 - 337)

The era that followed the Sever dynasty is extremely hectic and full of military clashes. It is characteristic that at this time a number of defensive structures were being built. Emperor Aurelius (270-275) surrounds Rome with a fortified wall. Close to her in time city \u200b\u200bgate of Verona (known as Porta dei Borsari) and Trier (Porta Nigra).

Antique gate of Verona - Porta Borsari

In the III century. blooms magnificently Palmyra, planned according to a pre-planned plan and richly decorated with grandiose colonnades; Decumanus (the main street) of this city formed a grand avenue 1135 m long, on both sides of which there were three hundred and seventy-five columns supporting a rather heavy entablature. The height of the columns was 17 m. Strongly protruding consoles were placed on their smooth trunks, slightly above the middle. Houses, warehouses, shops and other buildings were located behind the colonnades. The colonnades ended with a three-span triumphal arch, framed by pilasters and richly decorated with ornaments.

Epoch Diocletian (284-305) and his closest successors is the final stage in the development of ancient art in general and architecture in particular.

The main building of Diocletian in Rome was grandiose termsbuilt in 302-305. According to the plan, they were close to the thermal baths of Caracalla, but accommodated twice as many visitors (over 3,000 people). Quite significant parts of Diocletian's baths have survived to this day. Tepidarium (warm bath) of these terms, currently serving as a church ( S. Maria degli Angeli), has reached us in very good condition. This room is covered with very boldly drawn cross vaults.

Another architectural monument associated with the name of Diocletian is his palace in the Salon (Spalato). It differs sharply from the residences of the Roman emperors of the 1st - 2nd centuries. and fully meets the new conditions of the Roman Empire, which is turning into an oriental despotism.

The palace occupies a vast rectangular space (over 37,000 m2), fortified with walls and towers. The layout of the premises was carried out according to the principle of a military camp. Symmetry reigned everywhere. Two wide streets divided the camp-palace into four equal parts. In one of these rectangular parts there was a large octagonal building, near which stood colonnades, very characteristic of late antique architecture, supporting a number of arches.

Diocletian's successor, Maxentius (206-212), builds a basilica in Rome, completed, possibly after his death. This grandiose building was divided into three naves, with the middle nave being much wider and higher than the side naves (it was 25 m wide and 35 m high). The middle nave was covered with three cross vaults, and each side nave was covered with three barrel vaults.

In this basilica, we see a focus on the organization of vast, symmetrically located interior spaces. Architectural forms are built by means of walls, pillars and vaults, the smooth surfaces of which play a dominant role everywhere. The use of a column, even if it is a structural part, still has mainly a decorative purpose.

In conclusion, we mention triumphal arch of Constantine (323-337), located in Rome. In architectural forms, it is very close to the Arch of Septimius Severus, but even more than the latter, it is loaded with sculptural decorations that not only fill the lower and middle parts of the arch, but also penetrate upward in the form of statues standing on the protrusions of the entablature, under the columns, and reliefs between them. The creative impotence of the era is reflected in the fact that a significant part of the sculptures that adorn the arch are taken from earlier monuments.

The Roman Empire is rightfully considered one of the most ancient and powerful civilizations. She gave the world a unique culture, which to this day never ceases to amaze and delight. Of particular interest is the architecture of Ancient Rome, which was able to combine the best features of the ancient Greek and Etruscan heritage.

Features of the architecture of Ancient Rome

The architecture of Ancient Rome, as a distinctive art form, was formed during the 4th-1st centuries. BC e. The ancient structures only miraculously managed to survive to this day, despite numerous wars and natural disasters. Architectural monuments of ancient Roman architecture now conquer with their grandeur and monumentality.

And this is not surprising, because it was the ancient Romans who laid the foundation for a new era in world architecture, starting the construction of imposing public buildings designed for a large number of people. These include theaters and amphitheaters, markets, libraries, baths, basilicas, temples.

Figure: 1. Terma in Ancient Rome.

When building their state, the ancient Romans used the achievements of Greek and Etruscan masters. And if the ancient Greeks in architecture were subtle connoisseurs of beauty, the Romans showed themselves to be practical and far-sighted builders. Having borrowed useful ideas, they were able to create a unique architecture, which, with its truly colossal scope, was able to embody in stone all the power of a great empire, become its symbol for many centuries.

The most famous monument of ancient Roman architecture is the Colosseum. It is a classic amphitheater of impressive size and was used for entertainment events. On its arena, gladiator fights, fierce battles of large predators and other entertainments were held. In the 3rd century A.D. e. The Colosseum was severely damaged in a massive fire. But it was restored and since then has attracted tourists from all over the world.

Figure: 2. Colosseum.

Achievements of the architecture of Ancient Rome

In the ancient world, the architecture of Rome was unmatched. The huge scale of construction, the variety of types of structures and compositional forms, amazing engineering findings were able to exalt Ancient Rome, strengthen its power and glory.

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The most significant achievements of that period of history include:

• Perhaps the most important invention of ancient Roman architects was concrete. The new building material consisted of water, lime and rubble. At first, it was used in the construction of roads, but due to its amazing strength and refractory qualities, concrete took a leading place in the construction of architectural structures.

By pouring concrete into the space between the two brick walls, the architects achieved incredible stability of the structure, and thus could build multi-storey buildings. Outside, they were covered with granite or marble, richly decorated with sculptural decor.

• Aqueducts - arched bridges - are one of the important achievements of Roman architects. Subsequently, their design served as a model for the construction of railway and other transport bridges.

Figure: 3. Ancient Roman aqueducts.

• The solidity of ancient Roman architecture became possible due to the use in the construction of all kinds of arches, supports and curved floors. The facades of the amphitheaters and bridges were fortified with rows of arcades, a characteristic feature of the architecture of Ancient Rome.
• Vaulted structures also became a major invention. By joining the arches together, the Roman architects were able to strengthen the structure of the ceiling and thus obtain a vault. By arranging a series of arches in the form of a closed circle, they created a dome. In the future, these innovations served as the basis for the development of many architectural trends.

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One of the most ancient civilizations in the world - the Holy Roman Empire - gave humanity the greatest culture, which included not only the richest literary heritage, but also the stone chronicle. For a long time there is no people who inhabited this state, but thanks to the preserved architectural monuments, it is possible to recreate the way of life of the pagan Romans. On April 21, the day the city was founded on seven hills, I propose to look at 10 sights of Ancient Rome.

Roman forum

The area, located in the valley between the Palatine and Velia on the south side, the Capitol on the west, Esquiline and the slopes of the Quirinal and Viminal, was a wetland in the pre-Roman period. Until the middle of the VIII century BC. e. this area was used for burials, and settlements were located on the nearby hills. The place was drained during the reign of King Tarquikius the Ancient, who stopped it at the center of the political, religious and cultural life of the townspeople. It was here that the famous truce between the Romans and the Sabines took place, elections to the Senate were held, judges sat and divine services were held.

From west to east, through the entire Roman Forum, runs the sacred road of the empire - Via Appia, or the Appian Way, along which there are many monuments from both ancient and medieval times. The Roman Forum houses the Temple of Saturn, the Temple of Vespasian and the Temple of Vesta.

The temple in honor of the god Saturn was erected around 489 BC, symbolizing the victory over the Etruscan kings of the Tarquinean clan. Several times he died during fires, but was revived. The inscription on the frieze confirms that "The Senate and the people of Rome have been rebuilt, destroyed by fire." It was a majestic building, which was decorated with a statue of Saturn, it included the premises of the state treasury, an aerarium, where documents on state revenues and debts were kept. However, only a few columns of the Ionic order have survived to this day.

The construction of the Temple of Vespasian began by decision of the Senate in 79 AD. e. after the death of the emperor. This holy building was dedicated to Flavias: Vespasian and his son Titus. It was 33 m long and 22 m wide. Three 15-meter columns of the Corinthian order have survived to this day.

The Temple of Vesta is dedicated to the goddess of the hearth and in ancient times was connected with the House of the Vestals. The Sacred Fire was constantly maintained in the interior. Initially, it was guarded by the king's daughters, then they were replaced by the Vestal priestesses, who also conducted services in honor of Vesta. In this temple there was a cache with the symbols of the empire. The building was rounded in shape, the territory of which was bordered by 20 Corinthian columns. Despite the fact that the roof had an outlet for smoke, fires often broke out in the temple. It was rescued several times, reconstructed, but in 394 the emperor Theodosius ordered to close it. Gradually, the building was dilapidated and fell into decay.

Trajan's Column

Monument of ancient Roman architecture, erected in 113 AD. architect Apollodorus of Damascus in honor of the victories of Emperor Trajan over the Dacians. The marble column, hollow inside, rises 38 m above the ground. In the "body" of the structure there is a spiral staircase with 185 steps leading to the observation deck on the capital.

The trunk of the column spirals 23 times around a 190 m long ribbon with reliefs depicting episodes of the war between Rome and Dacia. Initially, the monument was crowned with an eagle, later with a statue of Trajan. And in the Middle Ages, the column began to be decorated with a statue of the Apostle Peter. At the base of the column there is a door leading to the hall where the golden urns with the ashes of Trajan and his wife Pompeii Plotina were placed. The relief tells about Trajan's two wars with the Dacians, and the period 101-102. AD separated from the battles of 105–106 by the winged figure of Victoria writing the name of the winner on a shield surrounded by trophies. It also depicts the movement of the Romans, the construction of fortifications, river crossings, battles, the details of weapons and armor of both troops are drawn in great detail. There are about 2,500 human figures on the 40-ton column. Trajan appears on it 59 times. In addition to the Victory, there are other allegorical figures in the relief: the Danube in the image of a majestic old man, Night - a woman with a veiled face, etc.

Pantheon

The Temple of All Gods was built in 126 AD. e. under the Emperor Hadrian on the site of the previous Pantheon, erected two centuries earlier by Mark Vipsanias Agrippa. The Latin inscription on the pediment reads: “M. AGRIPPA L F COS TERTIUM FECIT "-" Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, elected consul for the third time, erected this. " Located in Piazza della Rotonda. The Pantheon is distinguished by the classical clarity and integrity of the composition of the internal space, the grandeur of the artistic image. The building, devoid of external decorations of a cylindrical shape, is crowned with a dome covered with discreet carvings. The height from the floor to the opening in the vault exactly matches the diameter of the base of the dome, presenting an amazing proportion to the eye. The weight of the dome is distributed over eight sections that form a monolithic wall, between which are niches that give the massive building an airy feel. Thanks to the illusion of open space, it seems that the walls are not so thick, and the dome is much lighter than in reality. The circular opening in the vault of the temple allows light to illuminate the rich interior decoration. Everything has come down to this day almost unchanged.

Coliseum

One of the most significant buildings in Ancient Rome. The huge amphitheater took eight years to build. It was an oval building with 80 large arches along the perimeter of the arena, on which there were smaller ones. The arena is surrounded by a wall in 3 tiers, and the total number of large and small arches was 240. Each tier was decorated with columns made in different styles. The first is Doric, the second is Ionic, and the third is Corinthian. In addition, the first two tiers contained sculptures made by the best Roman craftsmen.

The amphitheater building included galleries intended for spectators' recreation, and loud traders sold various goods there. Outside, the Colosseum was decorated with marble, and beautiful statues were located around its perimeter. 64 entrances led into the room, which were located on different sides of the amphitheater.

Below were the privileged places for the noble nobles of Rome and the throne of the emperor. The floor of the arena, where not only gladiatorial battles took place, but also real sea battles, was made of wood.

Today the Colosseum has lost two-thirds of its original mass, but even today it is a majestic structure, a symbol of Rome. No wonder the saying says: "While the Colosseum stands, Rome will also stand, disappear the Colosseum - Rome and the whole world will disappear along with it."

Arch of Titus

The single-span marble arch, located on the Via Sacra road, was built after the death of Emperor Titus to commemorate the capture of Jerusalem in 81 AD. Its height is 15.4 m, width - 13.5 m, span depth - 4.75 m, span width - 5.33 m. procession with trophies, among which the main shrine of the Jewish temple is the menorah.

Baths of Caracalla

The baths were built at the beginning of the 3rd century AD. under Marcus Aurelius, nicknamed Caracalla. The luxurious building was intended not only for the washing process, but also for a variety of leisure activities, including both sports and intellectual. There were four entrances to the "bath building"; through two central ones they entered the covered halls. On both sides of it were rooms for meetings, recitation, etc. Among the many different rooms on the right and left intended for washing rooms, two large open symmetrical courtyards surrounded on three sides by a colonnade, the floor of which was decorated with the famous mosaic with the figures of athletes, should be noted. The emperors not only covered the walls with marble, covered the floors with mosaics and erected magnificent columns: they systematically collected works of art here. In the baths of Caracalla once stood the Farnese bull, statues of Flora and Hercules, the torso of Apollo Belvedere.

The visitor found here a club, a stadium, a recreation garden, and a house of culture. Everyone could choose for himself what he liked: some, having washed, sat down to chat with friends, went to watch the wrestling and gymnastic exercises, could stretch themselves; others wandered in the park, admired the statues, sat in the library. People left with a supply of new strength, rested and renewed not only physically, but also morally. Despite such a gift of fate, the terms were destined to collapse.

Temples of Portune and Hercules

These temples are located on the left bank of the Tiber on another ancient forum of the city - Bych. In early republican times, ships docked here and a brisk livestock trade was conducted, hence the name.

The Temple of Portuna was built in honor of the god of ports. The building has a rectangular shape, decorated with columns of the Ionic order. The temple is well preserved since around 872 A.D. was converted into the Christian church of Santa Maria in Gradelis, in the 5th century it was consecrated into the church of Santa Maria Aegitsiana.

The Temple of Hercules has a monopter design - a round building without internal partitions. The construction dates back to the 2nd century BC. The temple has a diameter of 14.8 m and is decorated with twelve Corinthian columns 10.6 m high. The structure rests on a tuff foundation. Previously, the temple had an architrave and a roof, which have not survived to our times. In 1132 A.D. the temple became a place of Christian worship. The church was originally called Santo Stefano al Carose. In the 17th century, the newly consecrated temple began to be called Santa Maria del Sol.

Field of Mars

"Champ de Mars" - this was the name of the part of Rome, located on the left bank of the Tiber, originally intended for military and gymnastic exercises. In the center of the field was an altar in honor of the god of war. This part of the field remained vacant afterwards, while the rest of the field was built up.

Mausoleum of Hadrian

The architectural monument was conceived as the tomb of the emperor and his family. The mausoleum was a square base (side length - 84 m), in which a cylinder (diameter - 64 m, height about 20 m) was installed, topped with a mound, the top of which was adorned with a sculptural composition: the emperor in the form of the sun god controlling a quadriga. Subsequently, this gigantic structure was used for military and strategic purposes. Centuries have changed its original appearance. The building acquired the Angel's courtyard, medieval halls, including the Hall of Justice, the Pope's apartment, a prison, a library, a Treasure Hall and the Secret Archives. From the terrace of the castle, over which the figure of an Angel rises, a magnificent view of the city opens.

Catacombs

The Catacombs of Rome are a network of ancient structures that were used as burial places, mostly during the early Christian period. In total, Rome has more than 60 different catacombs (150-170 km long, about 750,000 burials), most of which are located underground along the Appian Way. Labyrinths of underground passages, according to one version, arose on the site of ancient quarries, according to the other, they were formed in private land plots. In the Middle Ages, the custom of burying in the catacombs disappeared, and they remained as evidence of the culture of Ancient Rome.

The chapter "Building materials, building equipment, structures" of the subsection "Architecture of the Roman Republic" of the section "Architecture of Ancient Rome" from the book "General history of architecture. Volume II. Architecture of the Ancient World (Greece and Rome) "edited by B.P. Mikhailova.

Stone was the main building material in a mountainous country, rich in various varieties and volcanic rocks. The most convenient for processing were varieties of soft tuff - gray, yellowish or brownish. Hard limestone, travertine, was highly valued, and it was used extremely sparingly during almost the entire period of the republic. It was used by architects only in places of the greatest load of the building in the corner parts and those details where porous tuff, which was easily weathered, was inappropriate. Outside, stone buildings were often covered with a light layer of knocking. Mostly religious and public buildings and engineering structures were erected from stone. The dwellings were built from raw bricks. From the end of the II century. fired bricks of various shapes came into use. Shafts of columns were laid out of shaped round or pentagonal bricks (Fig. 1). By the end of the 1st century. BC. Hollow brick blocks were used in the walls of the thermal baths to build a heating system in which hot air circulated (Fig. 2).

At the end of the republican period, white marble, both local and imported from Greece, began to be used to decorate temples, public buildings and rich dwellings.

In the art of building and stone processing techniques, the Etruscans had a certain influence on the Romans. The remains of the oldest Roman buildings are made of large stones of irregular shape. In addition to polygonal masonry, quadra masonry was developed early. For the period of the V-III centuries. BC e. The Romans improved their construction techniques by developing the so-called "normal" masonry of blocks in the shape of a parallelepiped of different sizes (on average 60X60X120 cm). Several methods of this masonry were used: from some spoon rows of blocks; from spoons with sparse pokes; from alternating rows of spoons and pokes, as well as observing rhythmic alternation in each row of spoons and spoons (Fig. 3).

By the III century. BC. under the influence of the Greeks, the processing of the outer side of the blocks improved and various methods of rustication were developed. Simple cranes were used to lift and move heavy stone blocks at construction sites (Fig. 4).

In addition to the post-beam system, a false arch and a false vault were used in the structures. By the end of the III century. BC. the appearance of Roman concrete, which opened up great opportunities in construction, belongs to.

The development of Roman concrete began with the use of lime mortar in rubble masonry. This construction technique was widespread in Hellenistic times. The difference between Roman concrete and ordinary lime mortars is that instead of sand, it used pozzolans - volcanic sands named after the place of extraction (the ancient Puteoli city of Pozzuoli). The use of pozzolanas instead of sand in mortar was due to the lack of good sands in this part of Italy. Pozzolanas have proven to be the best astringent in a solution, as they give it water resistance, strength and help it set quickly. Initially, concrete was only used to fill the space between the hewn stone walls. The dimensions of the stones laid in concrete gradually decreased, the mixture became more and more homogeneous and the concrete thus turned into an independent building material, although the facing of the outer surfaces with stone was preserved. Initially, the surface of the wall consisted of small irregularly shaped stones connected to the core of the wall and to each other with concrete mortar. This is the so-called wrong facing - incert (opus incertum). Gradually there appears (from the 90s of the 1st century BC) a tendency to give stones more and more regular shape, and, finally, from the middle of the 1st century. BC. reticulat - mesh masonry (opus reticulatum), in which the outer surface of a concrete wall is revetted with small, carefully laid pyramidal stones, comes into use. Their flat bases go out and form a mesh pattern, and their pointed ends are immersed in the concrete core of the wall (Fig. 5). The corners of the walls and lintels of the openings were formed by masonry from large blocks. Samples of early concrete technology have come down to us in small numbers. This is due to the fact that initially concrete was used mainly not in monumental buildings, but in dwellings and small structures, for which a quickly obtained and inexpensive wall material was needed. The concrete technique also had the advantage that it required a much smaller number of skilled construction workers and allowed the widespread use of slave labor.

In parallel, there was the development of arched-vaulted structures, which were used in the architecture of the ancient East, sometimes found in Greece (Priene, Pergamum, etc.). The question of whether the arched-vaulted structures were brought into the architecture of Rome from outside or independently invented by Roman architects cannot be considered finally solved at the present time.

The first appearance of the wedge arch in Rome dates back to the 4th century. BC. In the III-II centuries. BC. the number of arched-vaulted structures is increasing, especially since the end of the II century. BC.

The combination of concrete technology and arched-vaulted structures, which gave unprecedented opportunities, had a huge impact on the development of Roman architecture. Only with the help of such construction techniques it was possible to create such outstanding architectural structures as the Roman aqueducts, the Colosseum and the Pantheon.

The first monumental structure that has come down to us in this new form of technology is the portico of the Emilia, which was a huge grain warehouse in Emporia (the port of Rome downstream of the Tiber). Major trading operations were carried out here. Originally Emporium was a simple unloading area, and the portico of Emiliev was a temporary structure. In 174 BC. a portico building was built (Fig. 6). It was a large rectangular building stretched along the embankment (487X60 m), divided inside into 50 short transverse naves by 49 rows of pillars. The building rose in steps from the banks of the Tiber, and each nave was covered with a stepped cylindrical vault with a span of 8.3 m. On the hewn tuff façade, each nave had a corresponding section, separated from the neighboring ones by pilasters. Each nave is expressed on the facade: at the bottom with a large arched span, at the top with two smaller windows, also with a semicircular end. The walls of the building are made of very good quality gray concrete, the surface is covered with incert; the corners of the building and wedge-shaped arches above the door and window openings are made of rectangular blocks of the same material. The Emiliev portico was an outstanding monument of the early Roman art of building.

Here, for the first time in a building of such a grandiose scale, the fusion of the vaulted-arch principle of structures with concrete technology was achieved. Such a developed construction probably indicates a long preceding evolution.

The purpose of the building was in keeping with the simplicity of its forms. Repetition of one standard element on the facade 50 times gave the building a scale and emphasized the utility of its purpose.

Such huge structures were carried out in an extremely short time. The grandiose Colosseum was built in five years, and the aqueducts 100 or more kilometers long, together with substructures and bridges “in the places where they crossed river valleys, the Romans managed to build in two or three years (the term of office of aedil, the head of construction, elected by the Senate). Construction was usually tendered and carried out by contractors who were interested in the best organization of the whole, skillfully combining the labor of a huge mass of unskilled slaves and a small number of experienced building architects. Therefore, when designing, the typification of the main structural elements, the multiplicity of their sizes by foot and modularity, were widely used, which made it possible to divide the work into identical simple operations. The organization of labor on Roman construction sites was very high.