Basic information geography. Basic information from physical geography. From the top of B. Laba

For a long time, a person has been interested in what is located beyond the horizon - new territories or the edge of the Earth. There were century, civilization accumulated knowledge. It's time to come when scientists who have never had in distant lands, they knew a lot about them. Sources of geographic information were helped in this.

This article will tell you about what it is, as well as about their varieties.

General concepts

As you can guess, all of whom a person can get his information that interests it is called. What are the sources of geographic information grade 5 (in secondary education)? Let's list them:

• All geographic maps, atlases, as well as a variety of topographic plans, including military.
• A variety of geographical descriptions of concrete terrain.
• Directories, encyclopedic articles, results and reports of various expeditions.
• Aerial photographs and space
• and GPS / GLONASS.

That is what the sources of geographic information are known in the average secondary school. We will try to consider the characteristics of some of them slightly in more detail.

Modern technologies

In recent years, more and more sources are translated from paper into a digital view. And it is not surprising. Almost all 5 sources of geographic information, which we just said, today you can find exactly in digital form. Even professional scientists in recent years prefer to work with the "digit".

With the same GIS system work much more convenient than with breastbooks. And now we will discuss some sources of geographic information.

Cards

The map is called a schematic generalized image of a surface of some kind of land, the entire planet or celestial bodies. It is based on the principle of scaling, that is, mathematical methods are used for this. It is depending on the scale of all maps to be divided into three large groups:

• Large-scale.
• Medium-scale.
• Small-scale.

If we talk about the first category, then these documents have a ratio of 1: 200,000 and larger. This includes almost all topographic plans. All cards are considered small-scale, the ratio of which is less than 1: 1,000,000. The usual geographical atlas includes or small-scale, or mid-scale plans that are best suited for studying one or another terrain.

Sort cartographic information

It should be known that long before the creation of the card, experts produce strict selection of what will be depicted on it. This process is referred to as follows: Martographic generalization. Naturally, the most rigorous selection exists with respect to small-scale cards, as they need to accommodate the maximum amount of useful information at a minimum occupied document area. In the general generalization, an extremely important role is played by the immediate assignment of the card, as well as the wishes of its customer.

Locality plans

This is the name of the area drawings that are performed on a large scale (1: 5000 or more), and it is still drawn using special conventional designations. By this, they resemble school geographical satin. The construction of such plans is based on eye-eye, instrumental measurements, aerial photography or a combined method.

Since the plans indicate the relatively small sections of the earth's surface, when they are created, the curvature planet can be neglected. It should be clearly understood that these sources of geographic information that we have just described are fundamentally different from each other.

Main differences Plans from cards

• In centimeter, the plan is rarely laid more than five real kilometers on the ground. They are much more cards, in one millimeter of which hundreds of kilometers of the earth's surface can be laid.
• All objects on the location in the plans are depicted as detailed as possible. In principle, on the average drawing there are marked more or less significant sites. Thus, on topographic plans of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation (and the USSR, of course) even trees and small streams can be displayed. It is impossible to fit all this information on the cards. Actually, therefore, the generalization is carried out, which we talked above. Even the exact outlines of the continents on many maps cannot be displayed, and therefore they are often applied with significant distortions. In addition, the above-described additional literature on geography uses borne-scale conventions.
• Once again we emphasize that when building a plan, the curvature of the earth's surface is neglected. Maps, especially in a small scale, take into account her mandatory.
• The plans never happen a degree grid. At the same time, parallels and meridians are on each of them.
• The plan is always simple in terms of orientation. The top of the document is the north, bottom, respectively - the south. On the maps, the direction is determined by parallel.

Methods of image objects on plans and on maps

Conditional signs in this case are generally accepted options in which the characteristics of objects depicted on the map or plan are encoded. With their help, it can be displayed as something specific (mountain, for example), and something completely abstract, conditional (population density in the city, village, etc.). Of course, they all greatly facilitate the life of a person who knows the foundations of cartography and knows how to read these drawings.

How time is the card retains its relevance?

With this issue, at least the einojes and geologists and geologists are asked. The specific answer to it depends on the appointment, scale, the author of the plan. Thus, medieval researchers often painted cards literally "on the knee", so they no longer have to speak about their accuracy. But the maps of the General Staff, despite the time, still amazed with their accuracy.

Do not forget that cards are characterized by quite high stability, while Amazon's plans and the Nile can safely throw out years later after fifty after their publication. These rivers are so effectively and quickly change the relief of the surface of the Earth, that from older documents, there is only in the historical perspective.

Geographical descriptions, discoveries

All sources of geographic information discussed above are some dry, uninteresting. Which is more fascinating reading a description of some region, terrain or even the mainland written by a person who opened it all!

Jokes with jokes, but descriptions and reports on geographic (geodesic, biological) studies are sometimes able to give much more information than the most detailed topographic area of \u200b\u200bthe area. Especially since the latter does not display some unpleasant features of a particular area (malaria, founding in some central areas of Africa at every step, for example).

The list of references on geography, which students are issued at school (for example, Nikolina V. V. Geography, Purchasing Developments; Samkov V. A. We are studying the forest; Forest encyclopedia: in 2 tons / ch. Ed. G. I. Vorobyov ), as is once formed, thanks to the works of the researchers, at one time we entered all this information on the card, being in the very thick of the events.

Brief information about the opening of Africa

Tell a little about the history of the opening of the black continent. Of course, the word "discovery" is not entirely correct here: here is Australia - yes, I had to suffer. In the case of Africa, coastal areas were perfectly investigated, where they caught black slaves and bought an elephant bone from Arab merchants, but about what was going on in the depths of the continent, almost no one knew.

Everything has changed in the XIX century, when the legendary age arrived in Africa, it belongs to the honor of the opening of the origins of the Nile and the magnificent Lake Victoria. Few people know, but the Russian scientist V. V. Yuncker (in 1876-1886) was engaged in the studies of Central Africa.

For the indigenous population of the mainland, all this ended sadly: the main sources of geographic information (that is, the cards), the data for which all these brave scientists collected with such a labor and constant danger to life, began to be actively used by the workers ...

So, with maps and plans, we actually finished. Geographical atlases belong to the same category. And what is the role of modern sources of geographic information? To answer this question, consider the principle of sharing the old paper cards and navigator, which is now actively used even professional geographers and geologists.

GPS / GLONASS + cards

It should be noted that this method is superbly suitable for determining the accuracy of cards, atlases and topographic plans. In addition, this technique satisfies the needs of historians, as they can face the terrain, which is described in the historical chronicles of contemporaries of certain events. However, the literature on geography often contains terrain plans that have not been updated since the beginning of the last century.

To take advantage of so accurate, but rather time-consuming and somewhat extravagant method, you will have to perform three-time bindings (three different cards) to the same area of \u200b\u200bthe terrain:

• First find a more or less modern map or topographic plan.
• It is desirable to have a fresh aerospace snapshot of the area under study with topographic binding to the coordinate system.
• Finally, you need the card, the information of which you are going to check.

The meaning of this operation is to make all three of these area drawings in the navigator memory. Modern models of such devices have a fairly powerful processor and an impressive amount of RAM, so you can switch between cards instantly.

Determining the following route

The gasket of the route is best carried out using a modern card or topographic plan. We do not advise you to apply old documents for this. It is possible that on the site of the swamps now there is a passing area, but by the edge of the once rare young forest you can no longer be able, since the area has changed the geography radically changed. The map is good, that's just in most cases such documents are not too accurate.

Why is aerial photography and space pictures are preferable to cards?

But why paper drawings are so inferior to the products of modern technologies? The case in the following two reasons:

• First, the relevance of cosmic shooting or aerial photograph in most cases is much higher. When will the Cartographers encourage the next generalization of new data and release current location plans?
• In the pictures, you are literally able to determine the characteristics of a particular area in real time. On the map or even topographic plan of the tree of trees in the forest will be displayed only schematically and only in general. Simply put, stumble upon a thick spruce prolesta in the midst of the Bereznyaka is quite real, and in the conditions of a thick coniferous forest it is much easier.

By selecting the route and referring to new pictures, it is recommended to refer to the old map. Why are such difficulties? Imagine that you are a biologist on the field output. You need to determine how far the forest screamed, what kind of breeds of trees have appeared, how many types of forests changed over all these years. Ideal for solving all these tasks. Simple imposition of a new card on its old analogue. Thus, everything becomes visible as clear as possible.

This is what sources use geography. The map is hardly the most important of them, but at the same time do not forget that over the past decades, science and technology made a huge step forward, and therefore it is stupid not to take advantage of all modern achievements.

Conclusion

Here you learned what sources of geographic information are currently the most relevant. Strangely enough, but we still use all the same plans and cards that were invented before our era. Of course, with amendment on their modern look.

Russia -the state located on two continents in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The largest state of the world - 17 125,422 kV / km or 1/9 of the area of \u200b\u200ball land sushi, which is twice as much as the second place of Canada.

Russia borders with 19 countries (the largest indicator in the world), of which, on land with the following states: Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania - in North-West, Poland, Belarus, Ukraine - in the West, Abkhazia, Georgia, South Ossetia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan - in the south, China, Mongolia, North Korea - in the south-east; And on the sea with Turkey - in the southwest, with Japan and the USA - in the east. In addition, the Kaliningrad region, an enclave of Russia on the Baltic Sea coast, borders with Poland and Lithuania on the east.
Russia belongsalso islands New Earth, Northern Earth, Vaigach, Archipelago Land Franz Joseph, Novosibirsk Islands, Wrangel Island in the North Ocean Waternife in the north, Kuril Islands (which is still disputed by Japan) and Sakhalin Island in the Pacific Aquatorio in the East.
In the east, Russia is washed Japanese, Okhotsk and Bering Seas and Bering Strait; in the north - sea of \u200b\u200bLaptev and White, Barents, Kara, Chukotka and East Siberian seas; in the West - the Baltic Sea and the Finnish bay; In the south - black, Azov and Caspian seas.

After the collapse of the USSR At the end of 1991, the Russian Federation was recognized by the international community as the Republic of the Federal Device and was adopted in the UN Security Council and a number of other international organizations. The independence of the Russian Federation was announced on August 24, 1991. The head of state is the president (selected 1 time in 6 years), the executive authority belongs to the government led by the Prime Minister (appointed by the Parliament on the Presidential Presentation).
The State Duma and the Federation Council form a two-bearet parliament.
Lower Chamber State Duma is 450 deputies, elections take place 1 time in 5 years.
Upper Chamber Federation Council - 170 senators are appointed by regional parliaments.
Part The Russian Federation includes the 22nd republics, one autonomous region (Jewish), 4 autonomous districts, 9 edges and 46 regions.
Moscow, St. Petersburg and Sevastopol have direct federal subordination and are cities of federal significance. Just 2015 in the Russian Federation there are 85 subjects.

From the point of view of the demographic situation In the Russian Federation, the most significant event in March 2014 was the actual reunification of the Crimean Peninsula with the territory of the Russian state.

Capital of Russia - Moscow. The largest city of Russia with a population of 12 197 596 people.
Heart of Russia - Moscow Kremlin.
In total, Russia has 15 million cities, the largest cities with a population of over 1 million people. This is Moscow, St. Petersburg (more than 5 million people); Novosibirsk, Ekaterinburg (more than 1.5 million people); Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Samara, Chelyabinsk, Omsk, Rostov-on-Don, Ufa, Krasnoyarsk, Perm, Volgograd, Voronezh.

In total, Russia covers11 time zones with a difference from +2 to +12 hours in relation to Greenwich.

Population - 146 293 111 people (for 2014oD). Most of the inhabitants of Russia (about 80%) live in the European part (Central, South, North Caucasian, North-West, Volga, Ural Federal District). The remaining 20% \u200b\u200bis in the Asian part of Russia (Siberian, Far Eastern District). Most of the population live in cities - 75%.
In Russia live Representatives of more than 200 nationalities. The largest ethnic group - Russian is 80% of the country's population. Tatars - 4%, Ukrainians - 3%, Chuvashi, Bashkira, Belarusians, Mordov, Chechens, Armenians, Avars and other nationalities - 1% and less.
Peoples of Russia They say more than 100 languages \u200b\u200band dialects. Russian language is native about 130 million citizens (92% of the population of Russia). He is the state language of the Russian Federation. Also, Ukrainian, Tatar, Armenian and other languages \u200b\u200bare common.
Christians live in Russia (Mainly Orthodox), Muslims, Buddhists (mainly in Buryatia, Kalmykia and Tuva - Siberia), Jews, pagans and representatives of other religious denominations. The share of Russian citizens who are Orthodox Christians is 70% of all residents of the country. The number of Muslims is 15% of the population. Convinced atheists make up 6% of the population.
State currency - Russian ruble (~ 60 RUB \u003d 1 USD).

Russiait has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources, large reserves of various minerals, the most important of which are oil, gas, coal, gold and other strategic fossils. Russia ranks first in the world in the area of \u200b\u200bforests, which occupy 45% of the country's territory, has about 1/5 world wood reserves. Also, in Russia there is the largest number of lakes containing about a quarter of world stocks of non-frozen fresh water.
Despite the extensity of the territoryIn agriculture, a relatively small part of the lands are used - arable land takes only 8% of the country's territory. A significant part of the territory falls on the Eternal Merzlot zone.

About 3/4 of the territory Countries make up the plains. In the West, the Eastern European Plain extends - one of the largest plains of the world, on which almost the entire European part of Russia is located. In the south of the country there are northern slopes of the Caucasian Mountains, where there is the highest point of the country and Europe - Mount Elbrus (5.642 meters). In the east of the plain is limited to the low old Ural mountains up to 2.000 meters high. And east of the Urals, the West Siberian Plain is lies with extensive marshy spaces, bordered from the southeast Altai mountains up to 4.500 meters high. Closer to the coast of the Pacific Ocean in the east there is a region of mountain ranges and a flatbed of Northeast Asia. So, the eastern part of the country, with the exception of the valleys of large rivers, is a mountainous area. On the peninsula of Kamchatka there are 120 volcanoes, 23 of which are valid. The highest of them is a key hill with a height of 4.750 meters. The largest rivers of the country - Volga, Northern Dvina, Don, Irtysh, Ob, Angara, Yenisei, Lena, Amur. The largest lakes: Baikal (southeast) - the deepest and largest in the world in terms of volume, Ladoga, Onega Lakes (in the North-East).

Most of the countrylocated within a temperate climatic belt. The extreme areas of the North and the Northern Islands belong to the Arctic belt, and some southern regions are close to subtropics. The climate is almost throughout the country continental, which is especially manifested in a large amplitude of seasonal temperatures and the few precipitation. For most areas, winter is long. Especially strong frosts are observed in Eastern Yakutia (-45 ..- 50 degrees). In the European part of Russia, the temperature in winter reaches from 0 to -10 degrees. In summer, the average temperatures are +15 .. + 25 degrees. In the warm half of the year - from May to October - the bulk of precipitation falls.
Difference of climatic zones characterizes the variety of natural zones. In the Arctic deserts of the Far North, moss grow, polar poppies, buttercups; In Tundra, dwarf Bereza, Iva, Alder are added to these species. For taiga typical spruce, fir, cedar, larch. The south and west bend begins the zone of wide forests from oak, klyon, linden, grab. Also, on the territory of the country you can find a lot of rare breeds: Mongolian Oak, Manchur Clane, Ilm, Walnut. In the forest-steppe and steppe part of the country - oak forests, dissemination, cereals. In the Black Sea subtropics, forests of fluffy oak are dominated, juniper, samshet, black alder. On the coast - Eucalyptus, palm tree.
Rich and variety of faunacountries. In the Arctic and tundra zones: Lescent, reindeer, polar hare, seals, walrui, white bear. Bear, Lynx, Iispec, Wolverine, Elk, Sable, Ermine, Burundum, Protein live in Taiga; Gluffer nest, Ryabchik, Tewer, Woodpecker, Cement. In addition, the taiga is characterized by the presence of a huge number of mosquitoes. In deciduous forests there are wild boars, deer, mink, numerous birds, lizards. In the forests of the Far East - rare Ussuri tigers, bears, deer. Among the animals of the steppe zone are prevailed small rodents, many saigas, badgers, foxes, large steppe birds (drop, caravel, streptay). In the desert there are Jeyrana, Shakals, a burgted cat, numerous rodents. Many reptiles, turtles. In the Caucasus region, mountain goats, Caucasian deer, dike, Bars, Gien, Bear, and a large number of reptiles live.

Bondarev N. D.

Arkhyz and Big Laba. -M, 2002.

Preface

General

Travel features in spring and summer

Pages Story

Valley B. Laba

M1. Kurdzhinovo - pos. Pheiy.

M2. To the sources of the big lava.

MH. Ashirhumara

M4. To the Labinsky glacier.

Zaglaman

M5. To Zagoj Lakes (20 km, 1.5 days)

Other routes

Pheiya

M6. River Rechpsta - Per. Pheiya - pos. Pheiya (23 km, trail, 1 day)

M7. Pheiya village - r. Pheiya - Per. Vrup-pheiya - in the source r. Azgar.

Stormy and Azimba

M8. River B. Laba - r. Stormy - per. Vorontsova-Veljaminov - L. Azimba - r. Azimba (25 km, 2 days)

M9. The river is stormy - per. Duritsky - r. Amanauses (17 km, 1 day)

From the top of B. Laba

M10. B. Laba River - Per. Zegerker - per. 46th Army - Per. Alashtrah, trail, 12 km, 1 day.

M11. Label Labinsky - Per. Psyrs - Lake Psyrs (1.5 days)

Sanchara

M12. Pheiya village - r. Sanchara - Per. Sanchara - Per. Hellpop, trail, 2 days.

M13. Polyana 7th post - Mineral springs ADPSIS -PER. Adapse.

M14. Mineral sources of hello-trail along the crest of the GKC - Per. V. Damhurtz - Valley r. Damhurts (trail, 2 days).

M15. B. Laba River - Per. Abggytska - left source r. Abggyzha (20 km, 1.5 days)

Other routes

Macker

M16. Pheiya village - r. Macker - Per. Macker (trail)

Mumhurt

M17. Village Damhurtz - r. Mumhurtz - "Seven Lakes" (4-5 days)

Other routes

Damhurts

M18. Village Damhurtz - Per. Damhurts

Other routes

Big Zelechuk. Arkhyz

On the way to Arkhyz

M19. Stanitsa Zelenchukskaya - Aul Arkhyz (Highway, 48 km).

M20. Lower Ermolok - Balka Curve - Site Spire - p. Kyafar (trail, 1-2 days).

M21. Monuments of Nizhny Arkhyza (1 day).

M22. To the save is non-gun

M23. Nizhny Arkhyz - a tract Jet-Karasu is a large azimuthal telescope.

M24. Climbing on G. Shepherd (2733 m, 4 h)

Other routes

In the vicinity of Aula Arkhyz

M25. The medieval Alaska fortification (4 hours excursion).

M26. Baritic beam - XP. Abishira Ahuba (8 hours).

M27. Rock Karcha-Tebe - per. Boery-Ausu

M28. Arkhyz's horizon (6 h).

M29. Cossack Polyana - Lake Mors-Syrte - Per. Lake.

M30. Climbing on the city of Red (trail, half a day)

Other routes

Valley of the Arkhyz River

M31. Aul Archyz - r. Arkhyz (19 km, road).

M32. The Arkhyz River - Plateau Gabulu-Chat - G. Smirnova -R. Digital (2 days, trail).

M33. River Dukka - Per. Ayulu - r. White - r. Digy (26 km, 2 days).

M34. Dukka Pass - r. Stormy - r. B. Laba.

M35. Poted Fedoseeva (1 A, 2880 m).

M36. River Rechpsta - Per. Azgar - r. Azgar (trail, 17 km).

Other routes

Dowl

M37. Valley r. Digid - Oz. Nursky (trail, 31 km).

M38. Pass NUR (1 A, 2839 m).

M39. Pass Magana - Lake Psyrsh - Per. Bearish.

M40. Pass Pwish

M41. River Seclitme - Per. Chuchur - Green Lakes - Per. Hare ears or per. Kholodovsky - r. Digy (3 days)

M42. Bush Glacier - Per. Kizgych false - per. Chuchur gap - per. Chamagvara.

M43. Glacier Dsush - Per. Tokmak and lane. Dig.

Other routes

White and Amanauses

M44. White River (Ayuly) - Per. Dorbun - source r. Stormy

M45. Gorge r. Amanauses - per. Tornu and lane. Bear Glacier.

M46. River Amanause - Per. Poachers - r. Stormy (9 km)

M47. Translated Amanauses and Azimba

Other routes

Sofia

M48. Aul Archyz - r. Sofia is a glacier farm (road, 16 km).

M49. Sofia waterfalls (half a day excursion) leave an unforgettable impression.

M50. Pass Sofia Saddle (2640 m)

M51. Glacier farm - r. Ak-Aire - Per. Bash-jol -r. Digy (20 km, 1 day)

M52. River Ak-Ayry - Per. Topal Aushova (Kozhukhova) - Green Lakes (2 days)

M53. Glacier Ak-Ayry - Per. Ak-Ire - r. Kyshalau Su (1 day)

M54. Climbing on the city of Hope (1A, 3355 m, 10-12 h)

M55. River Ak-Ayry - Per. Kel-Aush - Upper Sophia Lakes - Kel-Bashi - r. Ak-Ayra (2-3 days)

M56. Valley r. Sofia - Lake Gammesh Chat (excursion, 15 km)

M57. River Sofia - Per. Eagleok - Oz. Crater - Oz. Comma - Lake Kashha-Achchchka-chat - r. Sofia (16 km, 2 3 days)

Other routes

Kizgic

M58. Aul Archyz - r. Kizgych is a tract of Kshgych-Bash (trail, 3-6 days).

M59. The tract Kizgich-Bashur - Waterfall Bech-Chuchur - Green Lakes (day excursion).

M60. Translated Kizgych and Satharo

M61. The tract Kizgich-Bash - Valley r. Salynngan - l. Salnngan (day excursion)

M62. Lake Mironova (excursion by 6-8 h)

M63. Passing Congur, Salnngan, Chvakhra

M64. Baga-Tala tract - per. Bugochit - r. Maruh (14 km)

M65. Pass of the 810th Rifle Shelf (1 B, 3000 m)

M66. Darrow Pass - Per. Chwahra - Per. Congur - Per. Satharo - Per. Kizgych false

Kyafar-urup. Abishira-Akhuba

M67. Stanitsa Zelenchukskaya - Stanja Watchtober - pos. Forest-kyafar

M68. Stanitsa Zelenchukskaya - r. B. Zelenchuk - Gemino beam - r. Kyafar-Agur - Cordon Lesnia

In the origins of the river Kyafar-Agur

M69. Kyzylchuk Ridge - Round Buds - Agur Lakes - Per. Fedoseeva - Arkhyz (trail, 4-6 days).

M70. Agur lakes - per. Agur - Per. Soulgwalle - Oz. Kyzylchuk (1-1.5 days).

M71. River Zap. Agur - Per. Kumbzhzh - Oz. Kyzylchuk - Oz. Fish (trail, 4-5 hours).

Other routes

Kyzylchuk. Chilik.

M72. Rounded borgorm - tract Kumbzh - r. Kyzylchuk -OZ. Fish - per. Rechpsta - r. Arkhyz (3-4 days)

M73. Fish Lake - Per. Kynhar - Oz. Chilik - Per. Chilik - r. Arkhyz (1.5-2 days)

M74. Fish Lake - Per. Kyzylchuk - Oz. Chilik - Per. Digging - r. Azgar - Poppy Makov (2-3 days)

M75. Traverse XP. Abishira-Ahuba from Per. Chilik to the lane. Rechpsta

M76. Pass Kyafar-Rachepsta (1A, 3000 m)

M77. Pass Kyafar-Arkhyz (1 A *, 3000 m)

Other routes

Azgar

M78. Azgar River - Per. Zaglaned - r. Zaglanka - r. B. Laba (1-1.5 days).

M79. Polyana Makov - Per. Cabanlas - r. Zaglanka -R. B. Laba.

M80. Polyana Makov - Per. Kyrthua - r. Zaglanka -R. B. Laba (1.5 days)

To the sources of the river

M81. The village of Vrup - XP. Akshirsky - Topper R. Werup -R. Zagablka (trail, 3-4 days)

M82. Big Urudition Canyon

M83. Pass of the urpet-aczgar (1 A *, 3000 m)

Other routes

Brief Toponymic Dictionary

Preface

The Western Caucasus is one of the most popular areas of mountain tourism, which in the 90s survived the recession of attendance, as, indeed, the entire Caucasus as a whole. In recent years, tourists and climbers began to return here. Convenient entrances, a variety of, technically interesting passes and tops, many high mountain lakes - all this attracts mountain travel lovers.

The last book in this area was the Guide "Mountain Travels in the West Caucasus" (V. V. Arsenine, N. D. Bondarev, E. D. Sergievsky. M: FIS, 1976). Since then on Zap. Caucasus had serious changes.

The ways to the southern slopes of the Chief Caucasus Range (GKC) were cut due to the emergence of the state border, new routes were developed on the northern slopes. There was a need for a new guidebook, and it was decided to release it in two books: "Arkhyz. Big Laba" (N. D. Bondarev) and "from Maruha to Elbrus" (V. V. Arsenine). They continue the series of guidebooks "Elbrus and his spurs" and "South Baksan" (A. A. Alekseev).

In the guidebook for each valley, the ways of approaches are first described, then transferring routes to neighboring gorges. I sing some sections, you can make up multi-day routes of different complexity categories. The descriptions of passage of pass are tied mainly by July - August. Travelings in the offseason (April - May, October - November) is devoted to a separate section. Technical techniques to overcome mountain relief, with rare exceptions, are not given.

Because of the rare visits to some valleys of the description of individual sites, may not correspond to a specific environment, primarily as a state of the trail, bridges and the location of the wives. In recent years, in the Caucasus there is an intensive melting of glaciers, for now in August, even on the slopes of the northern exposition, large areas of open ice are opening up, the danger of stonepads increases.

In the descriptions of the instructions "left" and "right" are used in the orographic sense, when the observer looks downstream of the river. Other stipulates.

Currently, the area has become a border. To visit, especially near the border with Abkhazia, permission is required, which in advance can be obtained at: 357100, Karachay-Circassian Republic, Cherkessk, ul. Leonova, 2, Military part 2011.

At the end of the book, a list of references is given, allowing to get acquainted with the nature and history of the district.

In the guidebook, the head "General Geographical Information" was written jointly with V. V. Arsenin. E. A. Alperten, E. A. Chernopatov, took part in descriptions of routes. A. Kovalenko, A. Kozhukhov, N. V. Koloshina, V. P. Kuznetsov, V. Kuznetsov, V. A. Lunin, P. F. Chirukhin, V. Ya. Fridlyand . It should be noted a special role in the preparation of the guidebook L. V. Vehenera. They compiled a toponymic dictionary, several routes are described and valuable comments on the text and schemes are made.

In the guidebook used photos of E. A. Alpertena, N. D. Bondareva, V. A. Zhettyakova, N. Yu. Kretova, A. V. Pavelik and E. A. Malnoy. At the final stage of the preparation of the book, V. A. Kolin, V. V. Konyshev, L. V. Turkin, E. A. Malnikatov were made of great technical work.

General geographical information

The Western Caucasus is called the Caucasus area to the west of Elbrus with the boundaries on the top flow of Kuban and Nenskra. In a narrower sense to Zap. The Caucasus refers to the area that includes a high-altitude, covered by glaciers section of the main Caucasian ridge (GKC) with a length of about 200 km. Located west, lower mountains refer to Naz.-Zap. Caucasus.

The guide covers part of the Zap. Caucasus with mountains in the upper reaches B. Zelenchuk, B. Laba, Kyafar-Agura and Urupa. Administratively this territory refers to the Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Stavropol and Krasnodar Territories. The highest peaks of the region - PSHICH (3790 m) and Sofia (3640 m).

North from the State Committee of GCC depart, separated by deep valleys of the tributaries B. Zelenchuk and B. Laba. At a distance of about 20 km from the GKC parallel to it is located xp. Abishira Akhuba, referring to the system of advanced (side) ridge. By the way, Elbrus belongs to it (5642 m). Another north, along the advanced, the rocky ridge stretches (height is about 2000 m), having a gentle northern slopes. South of the State Committeeancer are the Bzyb and Chhalt ridges. Their sneakers cut through deep canyons of Amtkel rivers, Jampal, Kelasuri and Humist, gradually go to no to the coast of the Black Sea.

The rivers of the northern slope of GKC cut through the side ridge with close gorges, and in the upper reaches, many valleys have extensive basins. Its beginning of the river is taken from glaciers and snowballs, the maximum of water falls for the summer, most of the river clean and transparent.

The mountain river is a serious obstacle. Especially difficult to cross in rainy weather, when the water level is noticeably rising. In the Caucasus, where there is a pretty dense network of roads and a trail, almost through all major rivers there are bridges. To them and need to tie the route. Shepherds arrange clasions, temporary bridges and through big streams. On the state of these crossings, you can learn in the villages, cats.

In this edge, many lakes. At the height, the largest of them lie in the Karah left by the ancient glaciers. A lot of small carriage and moraine lakes (other with ice until the end of summer) give these mountains a special charm.

The higher the mountain country is raised, the more deep and the ancient stone layers open, overview as a result of weathered and washed breeds. When traveling through the valleys of Kuban, you see near Cherkesska, near the river, quaternary sediments and sedimentary breeds of the tertiary period (age up to 65 million), for the Ust-Jahutin - Cretaceous period (up to 140 million years). Then at the entrance to Karachayevsk and behind it crosses the wide belt of Jurassic breeds (up to 200 million).

In the seismic map of the country, the Caucasus is attributed to the 7-8 ball zone. The earthquake in the mountains is dangerous to the occurrence of stonepads, covering the eaves and villages. The strong earthquake that was called Chhaltsky occurred on July 16, 1963. His epicenter was located near the village of Ptotal, which caused great destruction. Konnepad led to the tragedy in a group of climbers on the wall of Mount Dombay-Ulgen.

On the southern slope of GKC, where at that time there was a thunderstorm with a shower, landslides. As a result, the road in s was destroyed in several places. Chhatta. The landslide blocked the upper river. Ptotal. The river bold a barrier, the village stream blurred the shore and threw the forest.

Although strong shocks are rare, but the probability of them makes them carefully approaching the selection of Bivak, critical evaluating it (including finished areas) from the point of view of stonepad.

The climate of the district has a decisive effect of two factors: proximity to the Black Sea and a chain of high mountains. The effect of the sea is stronger on the southern slopes that intercept a significant part of the moisture of warm Western and South-Western winds. At their foot and on the coast, about 1500 mm of precipitation falls per year. With a height, the amount of precipitation grows, reaching 3000 mm and more. In winter, a lot of snow falls on moderate altitudes, in highlands the thickness of the snow cover reaches several meters.

On the northern slopes colder and land. With the intersection of the GKC, this difference is very sensible. With the rise in the mountains, the temperature drops, and the amount of precipitation grows. In Teberd, located at an altitude of about 1300 m, the average temperature of July +15.6 "C, January ~ 4" C, drops around 700 mm of precipitation for the year.

In Dombare (1630 m), the temperature is several degrees below, and the rainfall is twice as much. According to many years of observations on the meteorological station "Klukhore Pass" (2037 m), the height of the snow cover reaches 2 m, and on pre-armor slopes, it comes to 4 m. The rainy months are May and June. A relatively dry season lasts from August to October. In August, the heights of 2500 m are already freedoming.

For the last hundred years, the area of \u200b\u200bmost glaciers decreased by about a quarter, and their number due to crushing increased (although some small disappeared at all). The average thickness of the carriage glaciers is 25-30 m, and large valves - 100 m. The glaciers continue to retreat, the moraine is covered with grass and shrub. For the Caucasus is characterized by the proximity of Gletcher and Bright Green. In the gorge of Hetsquar in July, a few dozen meters from the glacier blooms Azalea.

Anvalian danger comes late in October - November, when snowfall starts. Avalanches from dry snow occur during or immediately after heavy snowfalls (70-100 mm per day). During the period of blizzards, snow boards are formed. In cold minor winter, the cause of avalanche can be the formation of a fragile layer of deep frost. With the transition of the average daily temperature in 0 ° C in March - April begins the time of gathering wet avalanches. They are possible in winter during thaws. The mass gathering avalanche usually ends to May, but in highlands this period is delayed. On snow slopes and under the eaves, avalanche risk is saved all year round.

Avalanche cones remain at the foot of the slopes to the middle, and in the shaded places and until the end of the summer. The danger of avalanche exists in the Municipality: avalanche foci, although rare, are known near Teberda and Arkhyza. Particular attention to avalanche danger is required in traveling in the spring (in May) and in the fall.

Entering the mountains from the north, first crossed the deciduous forest belt, starting from the height of 500-600 m. The lower floor (up to 900-1000 m) is occupied by oak-rabbovy forests with a hazel, ash, pear, and upper (up to 1400 m) - Beech. In widely mastered parts of the valleys, such forests are found to the islands, but cool, hard-to-reach slopes of gorges they are covered. Olha and Iva are growing along the banks of the rivers. At the heights from 1200-1400 m to 2200 m are dark wood (fir, spruce). Dry solar slopes and cliffs are busy pine.

The subalpiic belt goes above, the limits of which range from 1800 to 2500 m. Above the edge of the high-vehicle forest stretches the strip of beech, birch, maple crime. It is also added to the rhododendrons, the bushes are blooming at different times, and its white or cream inflorescences can be seen almost all summer. Even above are highly harvested, in human growth, meadow. Here is the kingdom of flowers: orange devices, blue bells, white daisies, pink mallows, yellow lilies, raspberry clover. In the middle of the flower sea, three-meter umbrellas of Borshevik are treated. Touching him causes long burning burns.

On gentle slopes, where they graze cattle, grass poorer. Horse sorrel and a poisonous chemacher are distinguished here. On Alpine meadows (2500-3200 m), short grass does not hide stones. The floral carpet is filled with bright blue hyacinths, purple primoses, yellow butterms, pink astrams and purple bells. Grass and flowers grow on rock shelves high above the snowflakes and ice.

The animal world includes more than 40 types of mammals and 120 species of birds. In the forests, boar, roe, Caucasian deer, Fox, Lynx, Shakal, Corn. Everywhere there is a hare-rusak. Altai protein spread, brought in 1937. There are wolves. In Caucasian and Teberdinsky Reserves, work is underway to restore the herd exterminated at the beginning of the XX century. Caucasian bison. The brown bear in the summer holds at the forest border, where you can stumble upon a lying left. He comes into the valleys, especially in Malinniki. On herbaceous ledges near the forest, you can see a herd of sulf, and on the rocks in the upper reaches the gorges - tours. Tour "Trails" go for the barely noticeable protrafficers and shelves, traces of tours are found on snowflakes. Below these animals are dangerous, since stones can sneak from under the hooves!

Among the birds of the forest and meadow belt, there are both ordinary for the middle strip - juckle, woodpecker, cuckoo, and mountainous - stone partridge (keklik), white-headed sip, black neck. Ular lives in highlands (large gray turkey) and black, with a yellow beak Alpine daw, inhabiting glaciers and snowfriends.

From the reptiles there are (right up to the rocks of the Alpine belt) lizards, dicks, copiers, steppe and caucasian viper. Caucasian Viper, Endemic Zap. Caucasus, meets up to a height of 2500 m in glades and overgrown cripples. In the subalpine zone, the Guaduk is held near the rocks and shots. It may have a different color, but it is characterized by a wide black zigzag band on the back. The snake is difficult to distinguish between the dry leaves of fern or stones covered with lichens.

In rivers and in some lakes there are trout.

On zap. The Caucasus operates reserves - Caucasian and Teberdinsky (with a branch in Arkhyze). To stay in them require permission. In the gorges (B. Zelenchuk, Vrup, B. Laba, etc.) Credentials were created, where hunting, fishing and berry collection are prohibited.

Foothills and valleys suitable for agriculture and gardening, densely populated. The main type of economic activity is cattle breeding. Distillation of livestock on mountain pastures occurs in May, the season usually lasts until September. For temporary accommodation, traditional Cauchies are the huts of logs, stone, drane or rods and tents.

Meadows in the valleys where there are roads are used under the hay. Highlander is a value, purified from stones and wall. In no case cannot be trampled grass, cutting the trails, arrange a bivak on it and scatter stones.

A fascinating subject geography is a scientific direction that studies the earth's surface, oceans and the sea, the environment and ecosystems, as well as the interaction between human society and the environment. The word geography is literally translated from the ancient Greek means "Description of the Earth". Below is the general definition of the term geography:

"Geography is a system of scientific knowledge that studies the physical features of the Earth and the Environment, including the impact of human activity on these factors, and on the contrary. The subject also covers the patterns of location of the population, land use, availability and production."

Scientists who study geography are known as geographers. These people are engaged in the study of the natural environment of our planet and human society. Although the antique world cartographers were known as geographers, today it is relatively independent specialization. Geographers, as a rule, are focused on two main areas of geographic research: physical geography and human geography.

The history of the development of geography

The term "geography" was invented by the ancient Greeks, which not only created detailed environmental entities, and also explained the difference between people and natural landscapes in different places of the Earth. Over time, the rich legacy of geography carried out a fateful journey into bright Islamic minds. The Golden Age of Islam has witnessed the striking achievements in the field of geographic sciences. Islamic geographers became famous for innovative discoveries. New lands were investigated and the first mesh was developed for the card system. The Chinese civilization also instrumentally contributed to the development of early geography. The compass developed by the Chinese was used by researchers to explore the unknown.

The new chapter in the history of science begins with the period of great geographic discoveries, the period coinciding with the European Renaissance. In the European world, a fresh interest in geography awoke. Marco Polo - Venetian merchant and traveler led this new research era. Commercial interests in establishing trading contacts with rich Asian civilizations, such as China and India have become the main stimulus of traveling in those times. Europeans advanced in all directions, opening new lands, unique cultures and. The enormous potential of geography for the formation of the future of human civilization and in the 18th century, it was introduced as the main discipline at the university level. Relying on geographic knowledge, people began to open up new ways and means to overcome the difficulties generated by nature, which led to the prosperity of human civilization in all corners of the world. In the 20th century, aerial photography, satellite technologies, computerized systems, and complex software radically changed science and made the study of geography more complete and detailed.

Geography branches

Geography can be considered as interdisciplinary science. The subject includes a transdisciplinary approach, which allows you to observe and analyze objects in the space of the Earth, as well as develop ways to solve problems based on this analysis. Discipline Geography can be divided into several directions of scientific research. Primary classification Geography shares the approach to the subject of two extensive categories: physical geography and socio-economic geography.

Physical geography

Determined as a geography branch that includes the study of natural objects and phenomena (or processes) on Earth.

Physical geography is additionally divided into the following industries:

• Geomorphology: It is engaged in the study of topographic and battymetric features of the surface of the Earth. Science helps clarify various aspects related to the form of relief, such as their history and dynamics. Geomorphology also tries to predict future changes in the physical characteristics of the external appearance of the Earth.
• Glaciology: The section of physical geography involved in the interconnection of the dynamics of glaciers and their influence on the environment of the planet. Thus, Glyciology involves the study of the cryosphere, including alpine and mainland glaciers. Glacier geology, snow hydrology, etc. are some subedisciplines of glaciological research.
• Oceanography: Since oceans contain 96.5% of all water on Earth, specialized discipline Oceanography is devoted to their study. Science Oceanography includes geological oceanography (studying the geological aspects of the bottom of the ocean, underwater mountains, volcanoes, etc.), biological oceanography (study of sea flora, fauna and ocean ecosystems), chemical oceanography (study of the chemical composition of sea water and their impact on Sea forms of life), physical oceanography (the study of oceanic movements, such as waves, flows, tides and flow).
• Hydrology: Another important branch of physical geography engaged in the study of the properties and dynamics of water movement towards land. She explores rivers, lakes, glaciers and underground waterproof horizons of the planet. Hydrology studies the continuous movement of water from one source to another, above and below the surface of the Earth, through.
• Soil science: The section of science, which studies various types of soils in their natural medium on the surface of the Earth. Helps to collect information and knowledge about the formation process (soil formation), composition, texture and classification of soils.
• : An indispensable physical geography discipline examining the dispersal of living organisms in the geographical space of the planet. It also studies the distribution of species during the geological periods of time. Each geographic region has its own unique ecosystems, and biogeography explores and explains their relationship with physico-geographical features. There are various branches of biogeography: zogeography (geographical distribution of animals), phytogeography (geographical distribution of plants), island biogeography (study of factors affecting individual ecosystems), etc.
• Paleogeography: The industry of physical geography, which studies geographic features at various points in the time of the geological history of the Earth. Science helps geographers to receive information on the continental positions and tactics of plates, determined by studying paleomagnetism and fossil records.
• Climatology: Scientific research climate, as well as the most important section of geographical research in the modern world. Considers all aspects associated with micro or local climate, as well as macro or global climate. Climatology also includes the study of the influence of human society to the climate, and vice versa.
• Meteorology: It is engaged in the study of weather conditions, atmospheric processes and phenomena affecting local and global weather.
• Environmental geography: Explores the interaction between people (individuals or society) and their natural medium from a spatial point of view.
• Coastal Geography: The specialized area of \u200b\u200bphysical geography, which also includes the study of socio-economic geography. It is devoted to the study of dynamic interaction between the coastal zone and the sea. Physical processes forming the coast and the effect of the sea to change the landscape. The study also implies an understanding of the impact of residents of coastal areas on the relief and the coast ecosystem.
• Quaternary geology: A highly specialized section of physical geography engaged in the study of the Quaternary period of the Earth (the geographical history of the Earth, covering the last 2.6 million years). This allows the geographers to learn about environmental changes that occurred in the recent past of the planet. Knowledge is used as a tool for predicting future changes in the world's environment.
• Geomatics: The technical industry of physical geography, which includes the collection, analysis, interpretation and storage of data on the surface of the Earth.
• Landscaping ecology: Science studying the influence of various landscapes of Earth on environmental processes and planet ecosystems.

Geography of man

Geography of a person, or socio-economic geography - a geography branch, engaged in the environmental impact on human society and earth surface, as well as the influence of anthropogenic activities on the planet. Socio-economic geography is focused on the study of the most developed from the evolutionary point of view of the creatures of the world - people and their environment.

This geography branch is divided into various disciplines depending on the direction of research:

• Geography Population: It is engaged in learning how nature determines the distribution, growth, composition, lifestyle and migration of human populations.
• Historical geography: Explains the change and development of geographical phenomena over time. Despite the fact that this section is considered as a branch of human geography, it also focuses on certain aspects of physical geography. Historical geography is trying to understand why, how and when the places and regions of the Earth change, as well as what influence on human society.
• Cultural geography: Explores how and why cultural preferences and norms change depending on space and place. Thus, it is engaged in the study of spatial variations of human cultures, including religion, language, choice of livelihoods, politics, etc.
• Economical geography: The most important section of socio-economic geography, covering the study of the location, distribution and organization of human activity in geographical space.
• Political geography: Considers the political borders of the countries of the world and separation between countries. It also studies how spatial structures affect political functions, and vice versa. Military geography, electoral geography, geopolitics - some of the subedisciplines of political geography.
• Geography of health: He examines the impact of the geographical position on the health and well-being of people.
• Social Geography: He studies the quality and standard of living of the human population of the world and is trying to understand how and why such standards change depending on the place and space.
• Geography of settlements: Engaged in the study of urban and rural settlements, economic structure, infrastructure, etc., as well as the dynamics of human settlement in relation to space and time.
• Geography of animals: Learn the animal world of the Earth and the interdependence between people and animals.

Geographical terms and concepts. Geographical definitions. Absolute height - The distance vertically from the sea level to this point. And. Points above sea level is considered positive, below - negative.
Azimuth - the angle between the direction north and the direction for any subject on the ground; It is calculated in degrees from 0 to 360 ° in the direction of the clockwise movement.

Iceberg - Large block of ice floating in the sea, lake or sitting on the mel.
Antarctic belt - descends from the southern pole to 70 ° Yu.Sh.
Anticyclone - an area of \u200b\u200bincreased air pressure in the atmosphere.

Areal - area of \u200b\u200bdistribution of any phenomenon or group of living organisms.
Arctic belt - descends from the North Pole to 70 ° C.Sh.
Archipelago - Group of islands.
Atmosphere - Air shell of the Earth.
Atoll - Coral island in the form of a ring.
Beam - Dry valley in steppe and forest-steppe areas in Russian plain.
Barkhan - The accumulation of bulk sand, inspired by the wind and not fixed with vegetation.
Pool - A decrease area that does not have drain on the surface.
Shore - Sushi strip, adjacent to the river, lake, sea; The slope descending to the water basin.
Biosphere - One of the land shells includes all living organisms.
Breeze - Local wind on the shores of the seas, lakes and large rivers. Day breeze. (or sea) blows from the sea (lake) on land. Night breeze (or coastal) - from sushi to the sea.
"Brockken Ghost" (According to Mount Brockken in the massif, Harz, Germany) is a special kind of mirage, observed on the clouds or fog at the rising or sunset.
Wind - Air movement relative to Earth, usually horizontal, is directed from high pressure to low. The direction of the wind is determined by the side of the horizon, from where it blows. Wind speed is determined in m / s, km / h, nodes or approximately on the Bafort scale.
Air humidity - The content in it is water vapor.
Watershed - The border between the catchment pools.
Elevation - Plot raised above the surrounding area.
Waves - oscillatory movements of the aqueous medium of seas and oceans caused by tidal powers of the moon and the sun (adorid-tidy waves), wind (wind waves), atmospheric pressure oscillations (anemobaric waves), underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions (tsunamis).
Highlight - a set of mountain structures with steep slopes, pointed peaks and deep valleys; Absolute heights of more than 3000 m. The highest mountain systems of the planet: Himalayas, the peak of Everest (8848 m) is located in Asia; In Central Asia, in India and China - Karakorum, the peak of Chochi (8611 m).
High-rise explanancy - Change of natural zones in the mountains from the sole to the top associated with climate change and soil depending on the height above sea level.
Geographical coordinates - angular values \u200b\u200bdetermining the position of any point on the globe relative to the equator and zero meridian.
Geosphershes - Earth shells, characterized by density and composition.
Hydrosphere - Water shell of the Earth.
Mountain - 1) Isolated sharp exaltation among relatively flat terrain; 2) Top in a mountainous country.
The mountains - Extensive areas with absolute heights up to several thousand meters and sharp fluctuations in heights in their limits.
Mining system - A combination of mountain chains and mountain ranges extending in one direction and having a common appearance.
Ridge - elongated, relatively low relief form; Formed by hills that lined up in a row and their footsteps.
Delta - The area of \u200b\u200bthe deposition of river deposits at the mouth of the river when it is shifted in the sea or the lake.
Longitude geographical - angle between the plane of the meridian passing through this point, and the plane of the initial meridian; It is measured in degrees and is counted from the initial meridian to the east and the west.
Valley - Negative linearly elongated relief form.
Dunes - Casting sands on the shores of the seas, lakes and rivers formed by the wind.
Bay - Part of the ocean (sea or lake), rather deep in land, but having free water exchange with the main part of the reservoir.
Ground Cora - Upper Earth Shell.
Swell - Small, with a calm uniform wave, excitement of the sea, river or lake.
Ionosphere - High layers of atmosphere, starting at an altitude of 50-60 km.
Source - The place where the river begins.
Canyon - Deep river valley with steep slopes and a narrow bottom. K. Underwater - deep valley within the submarine edge of the mainland.
Karst - dissolution of rocks with natural waters and a phenomenon with it related. Climate is a long-term weather in one area or another. Local K., distributed on a relatively small area.
Climatic zone (or belt) - Extensive region allocated for climatic indicators.
Spit - Sand or pebble shaft stretching along the shore or protruding in the form of cape far into the sea.
Crater - Deeperation arising after the explosion of the volcano.
Kryazh. - sharply raising major lifting, one of the types of elevations.
Avalanche - Mass of snow or ice, lowered from a steep slope.
Lagoon - shallow bay or bay separated from the sea oblique or coral reef.
Landscape geographical - Type of terrain, relatively homogeneous section of the geographic shell.
Glacier - The mass of ice, slowly moving under the action of gravity along the slope of the mountain or the valley. The Antarctic Glacier is the largest on the planet, its area is 13 million 650 thousand km2, the maximum thickness exceeds 4.7 km, and the total ice volume is about 25-27 million km3 - almost 90% of the volume of all the ice of the planet.
glacial period - Segment of time in the geological history of the Earth, characterized by a strong climate cooling.
Forest-steppe - Landscape in which forests and steppe alternate.
Lesotandr - Landscape in which forests and tundra alternate.
Liman - shallow bay at the mouth of the river; Usually separated from the sea oblique or cropping.
Lithosphere - One of the shells of the Earth.
Mantle - Earth shell between the earth's crust and the core.
Mainland - The large part of the sushi, surrounded by the oceans and seas surrounded from all sides.
Australia - in the southern hemisphere, between the Indian and the Pacific Oceans (the smallest of the mainland);
America North and South - in the western hemisphere, between the quiet and atlantic oceans;
Antarctica - in the central part of the southern polar region (the southernmost and the highest mainland on the planet);
Africa - in the southern hemisphere (the second largest mainland);
Eurasia - In the northern hemisphere (the largest mainland of the Earth).
Meridians geographicallye - imaginary circles passing through the poles and crossing the equator at right angles; All of their dots lie on one geographic longitude.
World Ocean - All the water space of the Earth.
Monsions - winds, periodically changing their direction depending on the time of year: in winter they blow with sushi at sea, and in the summer from the sea to land.
Highlands - A mountain country characterized by a combination of mountain ranges and arrays and located high above sea level. Tibet - In Central Asia, the highest and greatest Highlands on Earth. Its foundation is resting at absolute heights of 3500-5000 m or more. Separate vertices rise to 7000 m.
Lowland - Nizhny Mountain Tier or independent mountain structures with absolute heights from 500 m to 1500 m. The most famous Ural Mountains, which stretch out for 2000 km from the north to south - from the Kara Sea to the steppes of Kazakhstan. The overwhelming majority of the vertices of the Ural below 1500 m.
Lowland - Plain, not rising above 200 m above sea level. The most famous and significant among them is an Amazon lowland area of \u200b\u200bmore than 5 million km2 in South America.
Lake - Natural reservoir on the surface of the sushi. The largest in the world is the Caspian Sea Lake and the deepest Baikal.
Oceans - Parts of the World Ocean, separated by the continents and the islands. Atlantic; Indian - Ocean of heated water; North Arctic - the smallest and most shallow ocean; Pacific Ocean (Great), the greatest and deepest ocean on Earth.
Landslide - shift down the slope of the mass of the loose rock under the influence of gravity.
Island - Sushi plot, surrounded from all sides by the waters of the ocean, the sea, lake or river. The world's largest Island of Greenland is 2 million 176 thousand km2. The relative height is the vertical distance between the peak of the mountain and its foot.
Parallel geographic - Parallel equator Imaginary circumference, all points of which have the same latitude.
Greenhouse effect (atmospheric greenhouse effect) - protective actions of the atmosphere associated with the absorption of reflected long-wave radiation.
Passat - Permanent winds in tropical areas, which are in directed to the equator.
Plateau - 1) high plain bounded by steep ledges; 2) Extensive flat plot on the mountain peak.
Plateau underwater - Elevation of the seabed with a flat vertex and steep slopes.
Places- Deep (wide) section of the river bed between the rivers.
Plateau - Extensive area of \u200b\u200bsushi height from 300-500 m to 1000-2000 m and over sea level with flat tops and deeply embedded valleys. For example: East African, medium-grained, vitiv plateore.
Foama - Part of the river valley that is flooded in the flood.
Semi-desert - Transitional landscape, combining the draws of the steppe or desert.
Hemisphere Earth - Half of the earth sphere, emitted either by equator or by measured 160 ° V.D. and 20 ° zd (Vost. And Zap. Hemisphere), or other signs.
Poles geographical - Points of intersection of the axis of rotation of the earth with the earth's surface. Magnetic n. Land - points on the earth's surface, where the magnetic arrow is located vertically, i.e. where the magnetic compass is not applicable to orientation by the countries of light.
Polar circles (Northern and South) - parallels, located 66 ° 33 'to the north and south of the equator.
Threshold - shallow water in line of river with a big bias and rapid flow.
Floor - Hills and low mountains surrounding the highlands.
Prairie - Extensive herbaceous steppes in North. America.
Tides and fetches - Periodic fluctuations in the water level of the seas and oceans, which are caused by attraction of the moon and the sun.
Desert - Extensive spaces are almost without vegetation due to dry and roast climate. The biggest desert on the globe is a sugar in North. Africa.
Plains - Extensive smooth or weak-willed sushi spaces. The largest Eastern European, or Russian, area of \u200b\u200bmore than 6 million km2 and West Siberian in the north of Eurasia, about 3 million km2.
River - Permanent water flow, current in line. Amazon - River south. America, the greatest in the world in length (from the source of the Ukyali River more than 7000 km), in the area of \u200b\u200bthe basin (7180 MK2) and water supply; Mississippi is the largest river North. America, one of the greatest on earth (length from the source of the Missouri River 6420 km); Neil - River in Africa (length 6671 km).
Relief - a combination of various irregularities of the earth's surface of various origin; Formed with a combination of impacts on the earth's surface of endogenous and exogenous processes.
Road - The in-depth of the bottom of the valley, occupied by the river.
Savannah - Landscape of tropics and subtropics, in which herbal vegetation is combined with individual trees or their groups.
North Pole - Point of intersection of the earth's axis with the surface of the Earth in North. Hemisphere.
Sel. - mud or dirty flow, suddenly passing along the valley of the mountain river.
Tornado (American name tornado) - Vortex air movement in the form of a funnel or pillar.
Meditergo - Mountain structures with absolute heights from 1500 to 3000 m. Mountain structures of medium height on Earth Most. They spread on extensive spaces of the south and northeast Siberia. They are busy almost the entire Far East, the eastern part of China and the Indochina Peninsula; in the north of Africa and East African Plateau; Carpathians, Mountains of the Balkan, Apennine, Pyrenean and Scandinavian Peninsulas in Europe, etc.
Slope - The inclined area on the sushi or the day of the sea. A coiled slope is facing, from where the prevailing winds blow. The leveled slope is facing opposite to the direction of prevailing winds.
Steppe - Beggar spaces with a dry climate for which herbal vegetation is characteristic. In Eurasia, the steppe is almost a continuous strip stretch from the Black Sea to the northeast China, and in North America there are huge spaces of the great plains, closing in the south with a savannah tropical belt.
Stratosphere - layer of the atmosphere.
Subtropical belts (subtropics) are located between tropical and moderate belts.
Subscance belts - Located between the equatorial belt and tropical belts.
Taiga - zone of coniferous forests of a moderate belt. Taiga almost continuous belt covers the northern part of Eurasia and North America.
Typhoon - The name of the tropical cyclones of storm and hurricane power in Southeast Asia and in the Far East.
Takik - Flat decrease in the desert, coated with hardened clay crust.
Tectonic movements - Movement of the earth's crust, changing its structure and shape.
Tropics - 1) Imaginary parallel circles on the globe, located 23 ° 30 ° to the north and south of the equator: Capricorn tropics (Northern Tropic) - Tropics of the Northern Hemispheres and Cancer Tropics (Southern Tropic) - Tropics of the Southern Hemisphere; 2) Natural belts.
Tropical belts - Located between subtropical and subequatorial belts.
Troposphere - bottom layer of atmosphere.
Tundra - Temple landscape in the Arctic and Antarctic.
Moderate belt - Located in moderate latitudes.
Moderate latitudes - located between 40 ° and 65 ° C.Sh. and between 42e and 58 ° Yu.Sh.
Hurricane - Storm with wind speed 30-50 m / s.
Mouth - Place of falling rivers in the sea, lake or other river.
Front atmospheric - zone separating warm and cold air masses.
Fiord (Fjord) - A narrow deep sea bay with rocky shores, which is a flooded ice valley.
Hill - small in height and spare a common elevation.
Cyclones - Low atmospheric pressure area.
Tsunami - Japanese name of huge waves arising from underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Parts of the world- Earth regions, including continents (or parts them) with nearby islands. Australia, Asia, America, Antarctica, Africa, Europe.
Shelf - Material shallows with prevailing depths up to 200 m (in some cases more).
Latitude geographical - The angle between the sheer line at this point and the plane of the equator is measured in degrees and is counted from the equator to the north and south.
Squall - Sharp short-term wind enhancement to storm.
Calm - Calm, mouldhelie.
Storm - Very strong wind, accompanied by strong excitement to the sea.
Equator - Imaginary line connecting on the globe point equid to poles.
Exosphere - layer of the atmosphere.
Ecosphere - The area of \u200b\u200bouter space suitable for the existence of living organisms.
Erosion - The destruction of soils and rocks by flowing waters.
South Pole - point of intersection of the earth's axis with the surface of the Earth in the southern hemisphere.
Core of land - Central part of the planet with a radius of about 3470 km.

Economic and social geography

Enclave - part of the territory of one state, surrounded by the territory of other states and has no way out to the sea.
Agglomeration of urban - A group of closely located cities united by close labor, cultural and domestic, infrastructure connections in a complex system.
Sales balance - The difference between goods exported from the country (the export of the country) and imported (import).
Reproduction of the population - A combination of fertility, mortality and natural growth, which ensure continuous resumption and change of human generations.
Geographic environment - Part of the earthly nature, which society interacts at this stage of historical development.
Geopolitics - The dependence of the foreign policy of the state from the geographical situation and other physical and economic and geographical factors.
Global population problems - a collection of socio-demographic problems affecting the interests of all mankind, creating a threat to its true and future; The combined efforts of all states and peoples are needed to solve them.
Demographic Policy - A system of administrative, economic, propaganda measures with the help of which the state affects the natural population growth in the desired direction.
Demographic revolution - Transition from one type of population reproduction to another.
Demography - Spider about population, the patterns of its reproduction.
Natural population growth - The difference between birth and mortality values \u200b\u200bper 1000 inhabitants per year.
Immigration - entry into the country for a permanent or temporary (usually long-term) accommodation of citizens of other countries.
Import - import of goods to the country from other states.
Industrialization is the creation of large machine production in all sectors of the economy, the transformation of the country from agrarian to the industrial.
International Economic Integration - The process of establishing deep and sustainable business relationships between countries based on their agreed interstate policy.
Intense path of development - an increase in production volumes due to additional investment in existing production facilities.
Infrastructure - A combination of structures, buildings, systems and services necessary for the normal functioning and ensuring the daily life of the population.
Conversion - Translation of military production to the release of civilian products.
Megalopolis (Megapolis) - The largest form of resettlement, resulting from the captivity of several neighboring urban agglomerations.
Inter-sectoral complex - A group of industries producing homogeneous products or have close technological connections.
Migration of the population - Movement of the population in the territory associated with the variation of the place of residence.
National economy - The interaction of people and means of production: warehousing and labor items.
Likewise - The level of costs of scientific research and development in total production production costs.
Scientific and technical revolution (HTR) - Native quality coup in the productive forces of society, based on the transformation of science in direct productive power.
Nation - The historical and social community of people who form in a certain area in the process of the development of public market relations of industrial type and interdistrict (international) division of labor.
Industry - A combination of enterprises producing homogeneous products or providing homogeneous services.
Social and Economic Area - The territory of the country, which includes several administrative units, differing from other features of the historical development, geographical position, natural and labor resources, the specialization of the economy.
Zoning - separation of the territory to areas for a number of signs.
Regional policy - a complex of legislative, administrative, economic and environmental measures that contribute to the rational placement of production in the territory and leveling people's living levels.
Resource Supplence - the ratio between the magnitude of natural resources and the size of their use.
Free economic zone - The territory with advantageous EGP, on which, in order to attract foreign capital, a preferential tax and customs regime is established, special pricing conditions.
Specialization manufacturing - Issue by enterprises of individual parts and nodes, specific types of products, performing one or more technological operations.
Specialization of the territory - focusing in the area of \u200b\u200bproduction of certain products of OLS of a certain saw service
Structure of the national economy - the ratio between various spheres and industries at the cost of products, the number of employed or at the cost of the main production facilities.
Surbitanization - The process of growth of suburban zones of cities, leading to the outflow of the population and places of the application of labor from their central parts.
Territorial division of labor - Specialization of individual areas and countries in the production of certain types of products and services and the subsequent exchange of them.
Labor resources - Part of the country's population capable of labor activity and possessing the necessary physical development, mental abilities and knowledge for work.
Urbanization - The process of growth of cities and the spread of the urban lifestyle to the entire network of populated areas.
Service - work aimed at meeting the needs of an individual consumer.
Economic and geographical position (EGP) - The position of the object relative to other geographic objects that have economic importance for it.
Economically active population - Part of the country's population, comma in the national economy, and the unemployed, actively seeking work and ready for work.
Export - Export of goods to other countries.
Extensive development path - an increase in production volumes due to the quantitative growth of production units.
Emigration - Departure of citizens from their country to another permanent residence or for a long time.
Energosystem - A group of power stations connected by power lines and managed from a single center.
Ethnos - Historically established sustainable community of people having a unique internal structure and the original stereotype of behavior, determined to a greater "native" landscape.