Where is Sri Lanka on the map? Ceylon - the famous tea island of the Indian Ocean Origin of the island of sri lanka

Krk Island This strange name is a small island in the Adriatic Sea, belonging to Croatia. Once the Romans, whose roads passed throughout Europe, including here, called it Curicorum - after the long-lost Mediterranean people. Apparently the people

Isle of Man Isle of Man in the Irish Sea. Terr. OK. 600 sq. km. Terr. Great Britain, using the Post Office, independence. 56, 2 thousand Ch. mountains. - Douglas Den. UK system: 1 pound sterling \u003d 100 pence First post. dep. was opened in 1778, and the first post office - in 1822. In 1833 it was

SRI LANKA (Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka) Ceylon. Sri Lanka State in the Indian Ocean on the island. Sri Lanka (b. Ceylon) in the south. extremity of the Indian subcontinent. Terr. 65.5 thousand sq. km of us. ca 14, 9 million (1981): Sinhalese - 70%, Tamils \u200b\u200b- 22%, etc. Capital - Colombo. State tongue -

Authors: N. N. Alekseeva (Nature: physical and geographical sketch), S. G. Mereminsky (Religion), A. O. Zakharov (Historical sketch), V. D. Nesterkin (Armed Forces), V. S. Nechaev (Health), V. I. Linder (Sports), S. D. Serebryany (Literature), E. M. Gorokhovik (Music), V. A. Pogadaev (Theater), V. A. Pogadaev (Cinema)Authors: N. N. Alekseeva (Nature: physical and geographical sketch), S. G. Mereminsky (Religion), A. O. Zakharov (Historical sketch), V. D. Nesterkin (Armed Forces); \u003e\u003e

SRI LANKA (Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka).

General information

Sh.-L. - a state in the South. Asia (until 1972 Ceylon). Located on the same name. island and adjacent smaller islands in the Indian ok., southeast of India (separated from it by the bays of Mannarsky, Polk and Polk Strait 55 km wide, with Adamov Bridge - a chain of shoals and islands 48 km long). The length of the coastline is 1340 km. Pl. 65.6 thousand km 2. Us. 2 0771.0 thousand people (2014, estimate). Officer. capital - Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte (Kotte; since 1982; seat of parliament and the Supreme Court), fact. capital - Colombo (seat of the president and government). Officer. languages \u200b\u200b- Sinhalese and Tamil. The monetary unit is the Sri Lankan rupee. Adm.-Terr. division: 9 provinces (table), which are divided into 25 districts.

Administrative divisions (2014)

Sh.-L. - Member of the UN (1955); Commonwealth of Nations (1948), IMF (1950), IBRD (1950), SAARC (1985), WTO (1995); country - SCO dialogue partner (2009).

Political system

Sh.-L. - unitary state. The Constitution was adopted on 8/16/1978. The form of government is a mixed republic.

The head of state and government is the president, elected for 6 years by direct universal suffrage (with the right of one re-election). The president is the supreme commander in chief.

Supreme Legislator body - unicameral parliament. 225 deputies are elected by direct universal suffrage on the basis of a proportional system; the party that received the majority of votes in the K.-L. district, receives supplement. place. The term of office of the deputies is 6 years.

The Cabinet of Ministers is headed by the Prime Minister. The President appoints the leader of the parliamentary majority to this position. Ministers are appointed by the President on the proposal of the Prime Minister. The President after consulting the Prime Minister. determines the number of ministers and their competence.

Leading polit. parties: United nat. party, United Nar. freedom alliance, Tamil nat. alliance.

Nature

The coast of the island preim. low-lying, often lagoon (especially in the north and east), bordered by coral reefs, slightly dissected, with a det. ingression bays; large peninsula - Jaffna.

Relief

St. 80% of the territory is occupied by low-lying plains (the widest in the north and east), over which the dep. rocky outliers. To the center. and south. parts of the stepped Central Highlands, consisting of several tiers of leveled surfaces, broken by faults; steep peaks rise above the upper tier - Mount Pidurutalagala (heights up to 2524 m - the highest point of Sh.-L.), Adamov Peak, etc. The central highland is surrounded by elevated denudation plains with protruding hills and ridges. Sandy beaches are widely developed along the coasts, in places protected by coral reefs.

Geological structure and minerals

Sh.-L. located in the southeast. part of the Hindustan platform, the foundation of which is composed of Precambrian gneisses, granite gneisses, scoopites, amphibolites, crystalline. slates, quartzites, marbles; Late Proterozoic granites (about 1 billion years old), dolerite and pegmatite dikes are widespread; carbonatites are known. The foundation protrudes to the surface on b. including the territory of Sh.-L .; in the north, it is hidden under a cover of sedimentary rocks (sandstones, siltstones, mudstones, limestones, sands, clays) of Jurassic and Neogene ages. Along the Indian coast approx. developed coastal-marine Quaternary deposits (pebbles, gravel, sands, clays). Laterite weathering crusts are present.

Main minerals: graphite (deposits of Kakhatagaha in the North-Western province; near Kalutara, Palinda-Nuvara in the Western province; near Kandy in the Central province; near Kegalla, Varakapola in the Sabaragamuva province; near Hikkaduwa in the southern province, and etc.); coastal-marine ilmenite-rutile placers with zircon and monazite (Pulmodday); precious and ornamental stones (sapphire and ruby \u200b\u200b- a deposit near Ratnapura, etc.; chrysoberyl, aquamarine, topaz, moonstone, etc.); phosphorites, apatite, feldspars, mica, kaolinic and other clays, limestones, quartz sand.

Climate

On the territory of S.-L. the climate in the north and east is subequatorial monsoon, in the south and west - equatorial monsoon. The average monthly air temperature in the plains is 26-30 ° C, in the mountains 15-17 ° C. The largest amount of precipitation (up to 5000 mm per year) falls in the south-west. slopes Center. highlands (mainly during the summer monsoon). To the north-east. On the slopes and adjacent plains, the annual precipitation is 1000–2000 mm (mainly sample during the winter monsoon), during 8–9 months (in spring and summer) there is a dry season. The smallest amount of precipitation (less than 1000 mm per year) falls in the north-west. and southeast. coasts. In spring and autumn for many others. areas are characterized by abundant convective afternoon (so-called zenital) rains. In the northeast (in the so-called dry zone) droughts periodically occur. East the coast is exposed to the tropical. cyclones.

Inland waters

The river network is dense. Short full-flowing rivers (the largest is the Mahaveli-Ganga river) begin on the slopes of the Center. highlands and spread radially in all directions, forming waterfalls in the mountains. River waters are used for irrigation (mainly in the north and east). Many reservoirs and arts have been built. reservoirs (more than 12 thousand), thanks to which the coeff. lakes reached 4% (one of the highest rates in the world). Annually renewable water resources are 52.8 km 3 (2011), water supply is 638.8 m 3 per person / year. Annual water intake approx. 13 km 3, 88% of water is consumed in the village. x-ve, 6% - in industry, 6% - in public utilities.

Soils, flora and fauna

The soils are red-yellow ferralitic, along river valleys and along the coasts - alluvial. The "dry zone" is dominated by red-brown soils, on the Jaffna Peninsula - calcareous red-yellow soils, as well as underdeveloped soils on loose rocks.

In the flora, there are 3154 species of angiosperms, 1/4 some of which - endemics; 1,385 species are endangered. Forests cover 33% of the territory (2015). Wet evergreen tropical forests have been preserved in the southwest. slopes and in places at the foot of the Center. highlands. The stand includes dipterocarp, palms, breadfruit, etc., with rich undergrowth. Above 1500 m, forest areas alternate with grassy savanna-type wastelands with low oak trees, from a height. 2000 m wide crooked forest with rhododendrons and ferns. The plains in the north and east, as well as the adjacent highland slopes, are covered with deciduous forests, b. h. secondary. Along the north-west. and southeast. coasts - thickets of thorny bushes, in places near the coasts - mangrove forests. To the share of the arts. afforestation accounts for 10.4% of all forests.

Fauna of the Indomalayan type, with an admixture of Madagascar species (lemurs). Mammals include an elephant, a Ceylon bear, a leopard, a lynx, 5 species of monkeys, deer, wild boars, viverras, and flying foxes. Of the 240 bird species (parrots, peacocks, flamingos, storks), 27% are endangered. There are 211 species of reptiles on the island, including crocodiles, lizards, and snakes. Insects are diverse: butterflies (245 species), ants, termites, etc. The biodiversity of coastal ecosystems is great (208 species of coral polyps, 756 species of marine molluscs). In the waters of S.-L. more than 1300 species of marine fish live.

State and environmental protection

Pollution of lands, rivers and water bodies by runoffs containing residual amounts of fertilizers and pesticides applied to the fields is characteristic in coastal areas - runoff from aqua-farms for growing shrimp. Unsafe burial of untreated prom. and solid household waste. Pollution of inland and coastal waters by sewage and agrochemicals has significantly increased the number of cases of diseases among the rural population. Many aquatic ecosystems have become unsuitable for some species, including freshwater fish and crabs, snails, and a number of aquatic plants. Air pollution is typical for Colombo. Thanks to a variety of measures, including bans on logging in nature. forests, the rate of deforestation in the 2010s decreased markedly. However, deforestation, fragmentation and forest degradation are damaging biological growth. variety.

On the territory of S.-L. an extensive network of protected areas has been created, including many nature reserves and forest reserves, sea. nature reserve Hikkaduwa (south-west coast), nat. parks (Gal-Oya, Yala, Vilpattu, etc.), UNESCO biosphere reserves, wetlands inn. values \u200b\u200b(Kumana and Bundala on the southeast coast, Lake Maduganga, etc.). Center. Sinharaja Highlands and Biosphere Reserve - objects World heritage ... Flora and fauna are protected by the botanist. gardens (the largest is Peradeniya near the city of Kandy).

Population

Most of the population of S.-L. (74.9%) are Sinhalese; Tamils \u200b\u200balso live (Sri Lankan - 11.1%, Indian - 4.1%), moors Sri Lankan (9.3%), Malays (0.2%), sri Lankan burghers (0.2%), Vedda, etc. (2012, census).

From ser. 20th century the population of the country increased 2.57 times (8076.0 thousand people in 1950; 14912.9 thousand people in 1980; 20359.4 thousand people in 2012, census), the reason for the growth is natural. population growth. Max. growth rates were at stake. 1950s - 1970 (over 2.25% per year), then began to decline (to less than 1% from the mid-1990s), moreover, both due to a decrease in the birth rate, which significantly outstripped the decrease in mortality, and due to migrant. outflow of the population (several waves since the mid-1960s). Modern values \u200b\u200bof natural indicators. population movements (per 1000 inhabitants, 2016): birth rate 15.5, mortality 6.2, natural population growth 9.3. Coef. fertility of 2.09 children per woman (2016); infant mortality 8.6 per 1000 live births (boys - 9.5, girls - 7.6), cf. the life expectancy of us. 76.8 years (men - 73.3, women - 80.4 years). In the age structure of the population, the share of children (under 15 years old) is 24.5% (2016), people of working age (15–65 years old) - 66.1%, the elderly (over 65 years old) - 9.4%. Wed the age of the population is 32.5 years (2016; men - 31.2, women - 33.7 years). There are 96 men per 100 women (2016).

The migration balance is traditionally negative (1.3 per 1000 inhabitants, 2016); live abroad approx. 3 million Sri Lankans, the most numerous. communities - in the countries of the Middle East (Saudi Arabia - about 600 thousand people, UAE and Kuwait - 300 thousand each, Qatar and Lebanon - 100 thousand each), Great Britain (500 thousand), Canada (300 thousand people) ), India (200 thousand; Tamils) and France (150 thousand).

Wed the density of us. 316.6 people / km 2 (2014). The most densely populated are the western, south-western, central, as well as extreme sowing. and east. regions of the country.

Share of mountains. us. 18.4% (2015). Largest cities (thousand people, 2011): Colombo 753.0 (within the agglomeration of over 5.6 million people), Dehiwala-Mount Lavinia 246.0, Moratuwa 168.3, Negombo 144.6 (three the latter are part of the Colombo agglomeration), Jaffna 88.1.

Economically active us. 9062 thousand people (2016). Employment structure (%, 2015): in the service sector 45.9, agriculture, forestry, hunting and fishing 28.4, industry and construction 25.7. Officer. unemployment rate 4.5% (2016), including youth aged 15-25 20.1% (2013). 8.9% of us live below the poverty line. (2010). 4.7% of us are malnourished and hungry. (2014).

Religion

More than 70% of the inhabitants of S.-L. - Buddhists (gl. Arr. Adherents of Theravada); 12.6% are Hindus; 9.7% are Muslims (mostly Sunnis); 7.4% are Christians, including St. 6% Roman Catholic (2011, census).

St. 6 thousand Buddhist monasteries; OK. 20 thousand monks, following a single Pali canon, are divided into 3 movements: Siam-Nikaya (founded in 1753), Amarapura-Nikaya (founded in 1803), Ramanna-Nikaya (founded in 1865). There are a number of large Buddhist pilgrimage centers ( Anuradhapura , Dalada-Maligawa temple in Kandy, etc.). Roman Catholic. the church is represented by 1 metropolitanate and 11 suffragan dioceses.

Historical sketch

Sri Lanka from ancient times to the end of the Middle Ages

The island was inhabited in the Paleolithic. The most ancient population is the hunting tribes of proto-Australian origin (possibly the ancestors of modern Veddas). In the history of S.-L. (Ceylon) there were several. migration waves, ch. arr. from Hindustan. In the 6th and 3rd centuries. BC e. the Aryans entered here. According to the legend in the letter. sources, in the 6th century. BC e. on S.-L. Prince Vijaya, the forefather of the Sinhalese, and 700 of his comrades, representatives of the Aryans, arrived. All R. 1 thousand people started growing rice on the island; by 4 c. BC e. the first mention of irrigats belongs. structures on its territory.

The first large state union with the capital of Anuradhapura emerged in the 5th century and flourished under King Devanampiyatissa (250–210) of the Moriya dynasty. Close state. and cultural contacts with India contributed to the penetration of S.-L. Buddhism. According to legend, the spread of Buddhism on the island began during the reign of King Ashoka from the Mauryan dynasty, whose messenger (sometimes "son" or "brother") Mahinda converted Devanampiyatissa to Buddhism.

In the 3rd century. BC e. from Yuzh. India on S.-L. the Tamils \u200b\u200binvaded, with whom the local rulers had to fight. In the 1st century. n. e. the Moriya dynasty was overthrown by King Vasabha (67-111), the founder of the Lambakarna dynasty. Internecine feuds led in the 5th century. to the collapse of the state, which made it easier for the Tamil conquerors to seize means. parts of the island. The last king from the Lambakarna dynasty was Mahanama (406–428), after which the Tamil kings from the Pandya dynasty seized power. However, Dhatusena (455–473) soon restored the Moria dynasty to the throne. During his reign, the Kalaveva reservoir was built in the interfluve of Kala-Oi and Malvatu-Oi. The son of Dhatusena - Kassapa (473–491) moved the capital from Anuradhapura to Sigiriya (in the 6th century Anuradhapura again became the capital).

During the 6-7 centuries. the struggle for power between representatives of the Moria and Lambakarna dynasties continued. In the 8th century. a kingdom with the capital Polonnaruwa ascended on the island. Its rulers fought against the rebellions of large landowners and fought against the South Indus. the kingdoms of Pandya and Chola. In 993 the Chola conquered the kingdom of Anuradhapura, in 1017-18 and the rest of the regions of S.-L. The power of the Chols over S.-L. lasted until 1073.

King Vijayabahu I (1073-1110) conquered the lands from the Cholas and made Polonnaruwa the capital of a new unified kingdom. Sh.-L. reached the pinnacle of power during the reign of Parakramabahu I (1153–86). However, from the end. 12th century strife began, which led to the fact that in the 13-16 centuries. there was no single state on the island, several coexisted at the same time. kingdoms: Jaffna (1215-1620), Dambadeniya (1220-1345), Gampola (1341-1408), Kotte (1412-1597), Sitavaka (1521-94). In the 13-15 centuries. Sh.-L. was exposed to the invasions of the rulers of the South. India, Malacca Peninsula and China. From the 13th century. due to raids and strife, the resettlement of residents to the center began. and southwest. areas of the island. The once fertile lands in the north by the 15th century. turned into a jungle. The dominant on S.-L. Buddhism interacted with Hinduism, Hindu temples were built in the north and east. In the 15th century. from the Sinhalese kingdom of Kotte (in the west and southwest) the kingdom of Kandy (1469–1815, in the central regions) emerged.

Sri Lanka before the early 19th century

In the 16th century. Europe began. expansion to S.-L. (Ceylon). The Portuguese, led by the first viceroy of the Portuguese. India Laurenzo de Almeida in 1505 visited the port of Galle. In 1517 the Portuguese founded a fort in Colombo. In 1518 the third viceroy Lopu Suares d'Albergaria concluded the first trade agreement with the ruler of Kotte - Vijayabahu VII (1513–21). The Portuguese obtained the right to export spices and other goods from the island to Europe in exchange for helping Kotte in the internecine wars in S.-L. Colonial authorities in S.-L. obeyed the Viceroy, whose residence was in Goa. At the same time, the Christianization of the island of Europe began. preachers. Missions often received land from Buddhist and Hindu temples. Representatives of the Sinhalese landed aristocracy converted to Catholicism and took Portuguese at baptism. surnames. The Portuguese became widespread. tongue. In 1560 colonial expansion began in Jaffna, in 1591 Portugal established a protectorate over it. In 1594, Cotte, with the help of the Portuguese, subdued Sitawaka. In 1597, after the death of King Kotte - Dharmapala (1551–97), who bequeathed all his possessions to Portugal, King Philip I officially became the ruler of b. part S.-L. In 1620, Jaffna was finally subordinated, the whole island, with the exception of the center, fell under the control of the colonialists. parts and areas to the east. coast. Long wars with the Sinhalese state of Kandy did not bring success to the Portuguese. Main Europeans received income from control over trade, from 1614 - over the production of cinnamon.

In 1602 the first goll arrived in Kandy. the ship of Captain Joris van Spielbergen. In 1612, Ambassador Niederl. East India Company (NOIK) Marcellus Boshuver concluded an alliance with the king of Kandy Senaterat (1604–35) against the Portuguese, to the east. the coast of the island appeared goll. trading post. All R. 17th century Dutch-Portuguese the rivalry over the island intensified. In May 1638 NOIK and the ruler of Kandy Rajasinha II (1635-1687) concluded a new alliance against the Portuguese. In 1639, NOIK and Kandy captured the ports of Trincomalee and Batticaloa from the Portuguese, and in 1640 they took Negombo and Galle by storm. In 1644, a peace agreement was signed between Portugal and the United Provinces to divide the island into Portuguese. and goll. territory. In 1652 the military. action resumed. In 1656, the troops of the NOIK and Kandy, after a 7-month siege, took Colombo. In 1658 NOIK captured Jaffna, the last Portuguese fell. fort on S.-L. - Negapatam. The Dutch took control of the coastal areas, Kandy retained its independence. Goll. the island was governed by a governor and a resident in Colombo, who were subordinate, respectively, to the governor-general and the Council for Indian Affairs in Batavia (now Jakarta), where the headquarters of the Dutch colonial possessions in Asia was located. NOIC retained monopolies on cinnamon, cardamom, pepper, and areca palm. New crops were introduced (coffee, sugar cane); plantation production of black pepper, cinnamon, cardamom was encouraged. The Dutch introduced Protestantism, Niederl. the Reformed Church was transferred to many Catholic. temples built under the Portuguese.

From ser. 18th century Anglo-Gaul began. the struggle for the possession of the island. After the siege of Madras, Franz. East India Company in 1758-59 Brit. The East India Company (BOIC) became interested in S.-L. In 1762, 1782 and 1795, Kandy sent the BOIK embassies with a proposal for an alliance against the NOIK. In 1795–96, when the Netherlands was captured by revolutionary troops. France and the colonies lost contact with the metropolis, the BOC established control over the coastal areas of the island. The captured areas were incorporated into the Madras presidency. In 1798 the British held an adm. reform. Civil and military. the administration was headed by a governor responsible to the Dept. of Colonial Affairs in London. Control over tax collection and trade monopolies remained in the hands of BOIK officials.

Sri Lanka under British rule

In 1800 S.-L. removed from the Madras Presidency and declared independent. royal colony of Great Britain, which secured Peace Treaty of Amiens 1802 ... In 1815 Great Britain annexed the Kandy territory. After the anti-British uprising of 1817-18, the lands of Kandy were divided into 11 districts and brought under the control of the British. officials. A single administrative tax system has been introduced throughout the island. In 1833, the BOIK trade monopolies passed to the colonial authorities. In 1848 in the regions of Kandy, Matale, Kurunegaly, anti-colonial uprisings broke out again, suppressed by force of arms. Since the 1830s. on the lands seized from the peasants, a plantation economy began to be created, coffee, cinnamon, pepper, sugar cane, and cotton were cultivated. Since the 1880s, after the spread of the disease that destroyed coffee plantations, tea and rubber plantations appeared. To the end. 19th century they became ch. export crops Sh.-L., an important place in the export took copra and other products of the coconut palm. A working class was formed, the bulk of it consisted of plantation workers (mainly immigrants from India). Shareholding became the predominant form of peasant land use.

In 1865 at S.-L. the first nat. socio-political org-tion - Ceylon League. In the beginning. 20th century appeared bourgeois polit. organizations that demanded the implementation of the constitution. reforms. In 1919, P. Arunachalam, P. Ramanathan, D. B. Jayatilaka, D. S. Senanayake, and F. R. Senanayake founded the first major political figure. party - Ceylon National Congress (CSC), which advocated the provision of an elective majority to the Ceylonians in the Legislature. council, implementation of the principle of territorial representation, formation of a responsible government. The Ceylon Workers' Union was established in 1922. In 1931 at S.-L. introduced a constitution that provided for the creation of an elected parliament - State. advice. In the elections of 1931 and 1936, the majority of seats in the State. Council members received the members of the Central Committee, representatives of the big Sinhalese bourgeoisie. In the beginning. 1930s the anti-colonial movement "Surya Mal" (Surya Mal - flowers that were sold by members of the movement to create a fund to help the working people) developed in the country.

During World War II, the food issue was especially acute, since Japan, having occupied Burma, stopped the tradition. export of rice to S.-L. At the same time, the supply of products from the plantation sector of S.-L. continued to generate large profits for Brit. firms and large Ceylon planters. In 1942, the TsNK demanded the elimination of the colonial regime after the end of the war. Anti-imperialist growth. movement forced Brit. government to appoint a commission to draft a new constitution for Ceylon. Under the pressure of the national-liberate. the struggle of the peoples of the island and neighboring countries of Asia Great Britain on 4.2.1948 granted independence to Ceylon as a dominion.

Sri Lanka after independence

Power in the country was gained by the bourgeois United National Party (ONP), headed by D.S.Senanayake. Under the terms of the Anglo-Ceylon Defense Treaty (1947), the British remained on the island. troops and remained military. base. The monopolies of Great Britain still occupied the leading positions in the export of plantation crops and controlled the country's economy. The course of the Senanayake government was not aimed at decisively eliminating the colonial legacy. The policy of the UNP was opposed by a group of the Tamil bourgeoisie, which in 1949 created the Federal Party (FP). In 1951 a group of activists (under the leadership of Solomon Bandaranaike) left the ranks of the UNP and formed the Sri Lanka Freedom Party (PSSL). Its program included the requirements for the elimination of the colonial heritage and the implementation of progressive socio-economic. transformations. Oppositional forces to the government rallied around the PSShL program and created the United Nar. front (ONF), which defeated the ONP in the 1956 parliamentary elections.

The government of Solomon Bandaranaike took a course to strengthen the country's independence, tore apart the defenses. union with Great Britain, announced a policy of neutrality and non-alignment with the blocs. In 1957 the British were eliminated. sea \u200b\u200band air. bases on S.-L. Sinhalese replaced English as the only state language. language. The government actively supported Buddhist and Sinhalese cultural events. The economy pursued a course of nationalization.

The policy of the ONF government affected the interests of various. population groups. The new status of the Sinhalese language. provoked opposition from the Tamils. Under the arm. FP they began to fight for the provision of Tamil. state status language. This exacerbated intercommunal strife and provoked mass unrest in 1958. Tensions in trade unions and conflicts in Buddhist circles arose. In this situation, the politician. instability and social tension in Sept. 1959 Bandaranaike is killed. The UNP won the parliamentary elections in March 1960, but the government it created soon received a vote of no confidence. In the new elections in July 1960, the victory went to the PSLL, the reorganized widow of Solomon Bandaranaike, Sirimavo Bandaranaike, who took over as prime minister. In foreign policy, a course of "positive neutralism" was taken. The use of Sinhala has expanded. as official in the state. institutions and courts. Economical the program provided for the acceleration of the development of the industry, the restructuring of the village. x-va, expansion of the state. sector. The PSSL government nationalized the property of three foreign countries. oil companies (1963). In 1964, in order to strengthen the social base, the PSSL agreed to a coalition with the Socialist. the party of Lanka. The formation of the coalition sparked opposition from the right wing of the PSLL.

In the parliamentary elections of 1965, a relative majority of seats went to the UNP; the government was headed by D. Sh. Senanayake. In economical policy, the government has taken a course to encourage the private sector, attract foreigners. capital. The cooperation between the UNP and the FP led to a number of concessions to Tamil demands. For the first time since 1956, the Tamils, the Tamil language were included in the government. was assigned an officer. status. However, the gradual growth of Sinhalese-Tamil disagreements led to the exit from the FP government in 1968. At the same time, the PSSL and a group of Marxist parties (including the Socialist Party of Lanka) formed the opposition. United Front (UF), while the government's conciliatory policy towards Tamils \u200b\u200bwas used to stir up discontent, and the provision of benefits to the father. and foreign capital was sharply criticized. In the parliamentary elections in May 1970, the PF won, having received approx. 49% of the votes and 115 seats out of 151. The government is again headed by Sirimavo Bandaranaike. The state was strengthened. control over important economical. spheres, primarily over trade and industry. Attempts to build a socialist. societies came across means. economical difficulties caused by a deficit in the balance of payments, increased external debt, the need to finance an expensive social security program and subsidize the sale of grain to the population.

In 1971, Sirimavo Bandaranaike declared a state of emergency in the country (it remained until 1977). Following this, anti-governments broke out. riots by Sinhalese students and unemployed youth in many parts of the country, which were suppressed by force of arms. In 1972, a land reform began, and in 1975 tea plantations belonging to foreigners were nationalized. companies. A series of reforms aimed at active state intervention in the economy, led to economic. collapse and rising unemployment. Under the constitution adopted in 1972, Ceylon was proclaimed a free, sovereign and independent Republic of S.-L. Pressure from the right wing of the PSLL has complicated relations within the ruling coalition. Aggravation of differences between the Socialist. Party of Lanka and other coalition parties around the PF platform led to their withdrawal from the government. Having lost support b. including deputies in parliament, Bandaranaike was forced to call a general election for July 1977.

In 1977 the Communist. party, Socialist. party of Lanka and Nar. democratic. the party (founded in 1977) formed the United Left Front. In the same year, Tamil nationalist. the parties created the Tamil United Liberation Front. The UNP won the parliamentary elections in July 1977, its leader, J.R. Jayawardene, became the head of government, and in 1978 he took over as president (according to an amendment to the constitution adopted in October 1977, the president became the head of the executive power). Under the new Constitution, which came into force in 1978, the country received an official. name Democratic. Socialist. Republic Sh.-L. The nat was devalued. currency, pursued a policy of strengthening the private sector of the economy and attracting foreign. capital, significantly increased state. expenses for the implementation of economic development projects. Due to the high world prices for tea in 1977 and 1978 S.-L. quickly achieved economical. growth and reduction of unemployment. In 1982, President Jayawardene was re-elected for another term; as a result of a referendum, the powers of parliament were extended until 1989.

From the beginning. 1980s internal political. the situation in S.-L. was largely determined by permanent military-political. confrontation due to int. interethnic relations. A complex interweaving of contradictions between the two leading ethnic groups. groups - Sinhalese and Tamils \u200b\u200b- led to the emergence of a separatist movement for the creation of an independent Tamil state. His ch. the ideologist and inspirer was an extremist military-political figure. org-tion of Sri Lankan Tamils Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). In 1983, the conflict between the government and the LTTE entered the stage of open arms. fight. To achieve their polit. aims LTTE used methods of terror, in the main. bomb. Not only dozens of politicians fell victim to the Tiger attacks. leaders of Sh.-L., including the president of the country R. Premadasa (in 1993), but also the former. prime min. India R. Gandhi (1991).

In 1994, the Nar coalition. The alliance led by the PSSL won the parliamentary elections, its candidate C. Kumaratunga was elected president (before her, after the death of Premadasa, this post was held by Dingiri Banda Widgetunga). In the end. 1995 governments. troops took control of Jaffna, Ch. a bastion of the separatists. In the future, the LTTE militants switched to guerrilla tactics, concentrating in the hard-to-reach east. areas. In 1999–2000, LTTE inflicted governments. troops a number of defeats on the Jaffna Peninsula. Dec. 2001 on both sides it was announced about the time. the suspension of hostilities. On Feb. 2002 The ceasefire agreement is signed. For the period of negotiations with the LTTE in 2002, the government lifted the ban on the activities of this organization in S.-L. In apr. 2003 LTTE announced the suspension of its participation in the negotiations. Kumaratunga temporarily suspended the work of the Sri Lankan parliament and took control of three ministerial posts (defense, internal affairs and information). In 2004, she created the Union for Freedom of the United People (United People's Freedom Alliance) on the basis of the PSShL, communist. Nar. the Liberation Front (founded in 1965) and a number of other parties. After the terrible tsunami that struck S.-L. On 26.12.2004, a split began in the coalition: due to disagreements over the control over the distribution of international. aid to victims in 2005 the Front Nar. liberation. In nov. 2005 upon the expiration of her term of office, Kumaratunga resigned as president. From November 19, 2005 to January 9, 2015, the President of S.-L. there was M. Rajapakse, one of the leaders of the PSSL. In apr. 2006 began arming again. fight against LTTE. In 2009 the army of S.-L. completed the defeat of the LTTE, taking control of all areas that remained under the authority of the LTTE in North. provinces (Kilinochchi, Elephant Trail and Mullaitivu). Civil the 1983–2009 war claimed 80 to 100 thousand lives. In 2009 Shanghai Cooperation Organization made a decision to grant S.-L. the status of a dialogue partner.

On January 9, 2015, M. Sirisena was elected president, who, despite his many years of membership in the PSSL (1967–2014) and work in the Rajapaksa government (2005–14), sharply criticized nepotism and embezzlement during the reign of the former. head of state. In foreign policy, Sirisena advocated equal partnership with all Asian countries, including China, India, Pakistan and Japan, supporting the "Asian-centric multi-vector foreign policy." On 17 August 2015, parliamentary elections were held. The victory (about 45% of the votes and 106 seats in parliament) was won by the coalition United National. a front for good governance, including the UNP, the United Left Front, the Tamil Progressive Union, the Muslim Union of Ceylon, and a number of other parties. OK. 42% of the votes and 95 seats were won by the Union for the Freedom of the United People, headed by the PSShL.

Diplomatic. relations with the USSR were established in 1957. In 1963 and 1974 Sov. Prime Minister visited the Union. Sh.-L. Sirimavo Bandaranaike. The first in the history of bilateral relations, the visit of the President of Sri Lanka M. Rajapakse to Russia took place on 6–9.2.2010. At the end of 2014, trade turnover amounted to $ 545.2 million (Russian imports - $ 405.7 million, exports - $ 139.5 million). Russia continues to be the world's largest consumer of Ceylon tea.

Farm

Sh.-L. - Asian. country Wed level of economic. development. The volume of GDP (at purchasing power parity, 2015) 237.8 billion dollars, per capita approx. 10.7 thousand dollars.Human Development Index 0.757 (2015; 73rd place among 188 countries; 1st place in South Asia).

Economical reforms began in 1977 with the aim of creating a social market, export-oriented economy; included measures to weaken control by the state, privatization and liberalization of foreign trade. GDP growth in 1991-2000 on average. per year was 5.2%. In the 2000s. privatization was suspended, with the aim of demonopolization formed a number of new state. companies in the leading sectors of the economy, the production of goods for internal market. To attract foreigners. investments created 14 industrial parks and export-production. zones. Economic rates growth is 5.0% (2016), inflation - 4.3%; deficit of state. budget - 5.5% of GDP, current account of the balance of payments - 1.23 billion dollars; state debt - 77.1% of GDP, external debt - 47.65 billion dollars. An important source of income is remittances of the Sri Lankan community abroad (550-700 million dollars per year). GDP structure (%, 2016): service sector 60.6, industry and construction 30.9, agriculture, forestry, hunting and fishing 8.5.

Industry

Structure of prom. production by industry (% of value added, 2013): food flavors 47.0, light 22.9, oil refining and chemical 16.3, mechanical engineering and metalworking 8.5, mining and processing of non-metallic. miner. raw materials 3.9, other industries 1.4. Ch. prom. center - Colombo (with suburbs).

Fuel and energy complex

Sh.-L. does not have its own. reserves miner. fuel. Main type of energy carriers - products of oil refining (boiler and motor fuel, oil gas). Crude oil imports approx. 1.75 million tons (2013; ch. sample from UAE and Malaysia) production of petroleum products approx. 1.64 million tons, their export is 134 thousand tons, imports are approx. 2.83 million tons (growing much faster than imports of crude oil), consumption of approx. 4.33 million tons. The only oil refinery in the country operates in the city of Sapugaskanda (Western province) (capacity of 2.55 million tons of crude oil per year; now it is expanding). Ch. company - state. Ceylon Petroleum Corporation. Import of hard coal 1.23 million tons (2013); from Indonesia; for the needs of the electric power industry.

Electricity production approx. 12.4 billion kWh (2014), ch. arr. under the control of the state. Ceylon Electricity Board (CEB). Structure of production by types of power plants (%, 2014): TPP 60.8 (based on hydrocarbons 34.8, coal 26.0), HPP 36.7, installations of alternative energy sources 2.5. The installed capacity of power plants is 3932 MW (2014). The largest thermal power plants: coal-fired Lakvijaya (Puttalam, North-West province; capacity 900 MW; CEB division) and diesel Kelanitissa (north-eastern suburb of Colombo Vellampitia; 550 MW; jointly owned by CEB and AES Kelanitissa), HPPs: Victoria (210 MW) and Kotmale (201 MW; both on the Mahaveli River, Central Province; jointly owned by Mahaweli Authority and CEB). The structure of capacities of alternative energy (%, 2013): mini-hydroelectric power plants 77.8, wind power plants 19.9, biomass power plants 2.2, solar power plants 0.1. The Mannar wind farm is under construction (2016–18; in the North province; 100 MW; under the control of CEB).

Metallurgy

Production of rolled steel 76 thousand tons (2013). Several are active. metallurgical factories (using scrap metal); the largest are in Oruuola (capacity 250 thousand tons; owner - Ceylon Steel Corporation) and Kanuvana-Kurunduuotta (219 thousand tons; Melwire Rolling; both - Western prov.). Non-ferrous metallurgy is represented by the production of titanium (44.4 thousand tons, 2013) and zirconium (38 thousand tons) concentrates, secondary lead (in the export-industrial zone "Marigama", Western prov.; Under the control of the ind. Company " Gravita India ”; 3.8 thousand tons, 2013) and rolled aluminum (in Sapugaskand and Kanuvana-Kurunduuotta). Extraction of precious and semi-precious stones approx. 4100 thousand carats (2013): sapphires, rubies (both near Ratnapura, Sabaragamuva province), chrysoberyl (cat's eye), etc.

Mechanical engineering and metalworking

One of the leading industries is shipbuilding; specializes in the production of auxiliary vessels for offshore oil and natural gas production, sea. wind power and high-speed patrol boats; also manufactures tankers, bulk carriers (Ceylon Shipping Corporation) and sailboats (America's North Sails Group). Repair of mor. vessels (up to 125 thousand tons of deadweight) at the shipyards of the companies "Colombo Dockyard" and "Colombo Engineering Services"; ch. center - Colombo. Production of cars, trucks and specials. cars, buses at the factories of companies: nat. "Micro Cars" (in Kelania) and ind. "Ashok Leyland" (in Migasmulla, both - Western prov.) And "Tata Motors", trucks and motorcycles - ind. "Mahindra & Mahindra" (both in Colombo), auto rickshaws and motorcycles - ind. Bajaj Auto (in Colombo and Hambantota, South Prov.) And TVS Motor Company (Wattala, West.). Production of tractors, decomp. s.-kh. equipment, forklift trucks, etc. at the Samarakoon Tractor Industries enterprise in Minuvangoda (Western prov.). Also release of power engineering, electrical engineering, honey. and bakery equipment, equipment for processing grain and tea.

Chemical industry

Evaporation of rock salt from the sea. water (13 thousand tons, 2013; conducted by the company "Raigam Wayamba Salterns") - near Puttalam and Jaffna. Phosphate mining 53 thousand tons (2013; under the control of the state company "Lanka Phosphate") - in the Eppavala region (North Central province); in the same place production of phosphorus fertilizers and animal feed (meeting domestic demand by 60%). Chlorine, hydrochloric acid, caustic production soda, zinc chloride and bleaching agents (based on rock salt; in Parantan, North Prov.), lubricating oils, greases, brake fluids, polyethylene terephthalate and polyester (based on petroleum products; in Sapugaskand), polyethylene film and plastic products ( in Malabo, Western prov.), paints, adhesives, agrochemicals, veterinary and pharmaceuticals. preparations, personal hygiene products, etc. (in Colombo), detergents (British-Dutch factory of the "Unilever" company; in Horan, Western prov.). Production of soap and others from coconut oil, ethanol from sugar cane. Processing of natural rubber (approx. 70% of the crop): production of wear-resistant tires and decomp. mechanical rubber goods products (household and sporting goods) in a number of centers Zap. prov.

Timber industry

Commercial timber harvesting 611 thousand m 3 (2015), production of lumber 61 thousand m 3, wood-based panels 150 thousand m 3, plywood 6 thousand m 3, veneer 5 thousand m 3; cellulose 18.5 thousand tons, paper and cardboard 24.5 thousand tons, charcoal (including coconut shells) 1.7 thousand tons. Also production of furniture and furniture fittings. Small and cf. prevail. enterprises; main part is located in the suburbs of Colombo. Leading pulp and paper producer - National Paper Company; under her control a factory in Batticaloa (Eastern prov.).

Building materials industry

Extraction (thousand tons, 2013): kaolin 10.0, graphite 4.2, mica 2.2; cement production 3.0 million tons. Graphite is mined by the following companies: Sakura Graphite (in the North-West province), Kahatagaha Graphite Lanka (in the West province) and Germany. "Graphit Kropfmühl" (in the Central Prov.). Cement plants of the companies "Tokyo Cement Company (Lanka)" (created with the participation of Japanese capital), "Lanka Cement" and Swiss. Holcim operates in Puttalam, Trincomalee, Galle and Kankesanturai (North Prov.). Also production of ceramics. tiles, sanitary ware and porcelain ware (85% of production is exported).

Light industry

It has been developing since the 1980s. as an alternative to ind. light industry; occupied approx. 15% of the workforce (85% women). Valid approx. 900 enterprises for the production of clothing (including knitwear) of the world's leading brands; b. h. is located in Colombo and its suburbs; export of products to europe. countries and the USA. Production of home textiles and leather footwear. Processing of coconut fiber.

Food industry

Ch. export-oriented industry - tea industry [especially famous for leafy black tea; leading companies - "Origilal Ceylon Tea Company" and "Ceylon Tea Services" (trademark "Dilmah"); also packing of tea grew. by "May"]; its export earnings St. $ 1.5 billion (2013) Production of wheat flour (over 1.3 million tons per year) and compound feed at the enterprise of the Singapore company "Prima" in Trincomalee. Production (thousand tons, 2014): sugar 52.2, growing. oil 47.3 (coconut - 95.8%), margarine 7.5; beer 125 (Lion Brewery and Asia Pacific Brewery Lanka); strong alcoholic (Arrack brand; from the juice of coconut flowers) and non-alcoholic (including at the factories of the American companies Coca-Cola Company and PepsiCo) beverages, tobacco products (Ceylon Tobacco Company).

Agriculture and fishing

Pl. s.-kh. of land 2740 thousand hectares (2014), of which 47.4% is arable land, 36.5% of perennial plantations, 16.1% of pastures. The area of \u200b\u200birrigated land is 600.7 thousand hectares (2011), 92.7% is occupied by rice crops in the dry season.

Leading industry with. x-va - crop production. Plantats are traditionally of great importance. farms. The production of tea, coffee, coconuts, natural rubber and spices is oriented towards export; crops are consumed preim. within the country. Gross collection of Ch. plantation. crops (thousand tons, 2014): tea 338.0 (4th place in the world after China, India and Kenya), coffee 6.1; coconuts 2395.3, copra 152.4; natural rubber 113.1; black pepper 27.8, cinnamon 16.8, ginger 15.5, cloves 5.6. Tea and coffee plantations are common in the center. mountainous regions (including tea - in the provinces of Central., Uva, Sabaragamuva and South, at an altitude of St. 2100 m), coconut palm - in the west. areas and to the east. the coast, the rubber plant-hevea - in the southeast. Produced by other s.-kh. crops (thousand tons, 2014): rice 338.1, corn 241.1; sugar cane 960.4; cassava 301.5, potato 82.4, sweet potato 50.3; onions 190.2, squash and pumpkin 136.5, eggplant 128.3, cabbage 106.9, tomatoes 86.5, green beans 81.7, lettuce and herbs 65.3, chili peppers 62.5, carrots 54.7 , cucumbers 40.4; bananas 642.1, mango 76.5, pineapple 46.3; peanuts 25.4, sesame 14.1, cashew 6.4; tobacco 3.3. Cereals are grown in the south and along the east. coast, sugar cane - predominantly. in the east, tobacco in the north. A nursery for growing flower seedlings (built with the assistance of Dutch companies) operates near Dankotuva (North-West province).

Livestock provides vnutr. needs. Livestock (thousand heads, 2014): cattle 1425.5 (including buffaloes 320.7), goats 299.1, pigs 105.2; chickens 16.6 million. Production (thousand tons, 2014): poultry meat 143.9, beef and buffalo meat 24.8, pork 1.7, goat meat 1.1; milk 248.6 (cow's - approx. 4/5 ); eggs 1.7 billion pcs. Food imports are steadily declining (13.1% of the value of imports in 2015 versus 50.5% in 1975); import grain (wheat and rice), sugar, grows. oil, animal fats, etc.

Fishing and seafood production 535 thousand tons (2014); the industry employs 272.1 thousand people. Ch. fishing ports are Dikkovita (north of Colombo) and Cod Bay (in Trincomalee). Aquaculture is developing (together with the catch of fish in inland water bodies 75.8 thousand tons, 2014). Fish exports $ 266.5 million (2014), imports $ 144.5 million

Services sector

Monetary system operators: Center. bank S.-L. (1949; operations since 1950; modern name since 1985) and Colombo Stock Exchange. There are 23 commercials. (the role of foreign banks is great; the leading national banks are the state Bank of Ceylon; non-state Commercial Bank of Ceylon, National Development Bank, Nations Trust Bank, Pan Asia Banking Corporation and Union Bank of Colombo), 9 specialized (all national; assistance, will save . and investment) banks and approx. 30 insurance companies (including foreign ones). Ch. financial center - Colombo.

The outsourcing and IT services and software development sectors are developing rapidly (cumulative turnover of $ 730 million, 2013). Several are active. IT parks - in Dematagoda (a suburb of Colombo), Hambantota and others. The number of landline telephone subscribers 2.6 million (2015), mobile telephone subscribers approx. 24.4 million, St. 6.6 million Leading telecommunications. companies: "Sri Lanka Telecom", "Lanka Bell", "Dialog", "Etisalat", "Hutch" and "Airtel" (the last four are controlled by foreign companies).

Tourism is actively developing. business. The total number of foreign tourists 2.05 million (2016; 336.8 thousand in 2011), most of all come from India, China, Great Britain, Germany and France; number of int. tourists 6 million (2014). Main types of tourism: cultural, cognitive, recreational, ecological. and sporty.

Transport

Main mode of transport - automobile. The total length (thousand km, 2014) of highways 114.1, including improved approx. 12.5. Ch. road junction - Colombo. The fleet of road vehicles is 6.3 million units (2015), of which 3.36 million are motorcycles, 672.5 thousand cars. The length of railways is 1567 km (2015; track width is 1676 mm); the suburban railway is widespread. message. Length of int. waterways 160 km (2012; in the north-west of the country); pipelines (oil product pipelines) 62 km.

Mor. transport serves foreign trade. Mor. the fleet includes 21 vessels (2010) with a total displacement of 192.2 thousand reg. br.-t, 8 more go under foreign. flags. The largest pestilence. ports: Colombo (more than 5 million TEU containers in 2015, the main container port of the country), Hambantota (named after Maghampura Mahindra Rajapaksa; in the future, 20 million TEU containers), Trincomalee, Galle and Kankesanturai (Jaffna outport).

Number of air passengers 4.3 million (2015) The largest airports are Bandaranaike (over 8.5 million passengers, 2015) and Ratmalana (the first in the country; international business aviation, etc.) in Colombo and Mattala Rajapaksa in Hambantota. The leading airlines are SriLankan Airlines, Millennium Airlines (charter flights; helicopters and seaplanes).

Foreign economic relations

The volume of foreign trade turnover $ 29.4 billion (2015), including exports $ 10.4 billion, imports $ 19.0 billion Commodity structure of exports (% of value, 2015): clothes 43.5 , tea, coffee and spices 16.0 (the main directions of tea supplies are the UAE, Russia, Turkey and Iran), natural rubber and products from it 7.6, machinery and equipment 4.0, precious and semi-precious stones 2.3, fruits and nuts 2.0. Main buyers of goods from S.-L. (% of the cost, 2015): Asian. countries 30.6, countries North. America 29.6, Europe countries 29.1. The most important import commodity items (% of value, 2015): machinery and equipment 25.9, miner. fuel 14.0, plastics 3.9, knitted fabric 3.6, rolled steel 3.1, cotton 3.0, etc. Ch. suppliers of goods in S.-L. (% of the cost, 2015): Asian. countries 80.2, euro. countries 9.5, countries North. America 4.1.

Military establishment

Armed. forces (AF) number 183 thousand people. (2016) and consist of the Ground Forces (Land Forces), the Air Force and the Navy. Militarists. formation of 30.4 thousand people The organized reserve of the Armed Forces is 5.5 thousand people. Military. annual budget $ 1.97 billion (2016). The supreme commander-in-chief. The sun is the head of state - the president, who is also a min. defense. Immediate command and control of troops is entrusted to the General Staff.

Ground forces (140 thousand people) - the basis of the Armed Forces. They include 7 headquarters of districts and 22 headquarters of divisions; brigades and regiments. The Army is in service with 62 main battle tanks, 15 BRMs, 62 BMPs, St. 210 armored personnel carriers, 96 towed field artillery guns, 28 MLRS calibers 107 and 122 mm, 784 mortars, 40 recoilless guns, etc.

The Air Force (28 thousand people) includes a fighter, 3 fighter-assault, 2 transport air squadrons, a training air wing, a combat squadron, 3 squadrons of transport helicopters, 2 squadrons of unmanned aircraft, a guard regiment. The Air Force is armed with 30 combat, 21 transport, 14 training aircraft; 11 combat, 18 reconnaissance, 16 transport helicopters; 27 anti-aircraft guns.

The Navy (15 thousand people) has 3 patrol ships, boats, 3 military transports, 3 transport ships.

Weapons and military. foreign technique production. Manning the regular aircraft on a voluntary (contract) basis. Training of privates and sergeants - in units and training centers, officers - in the nat. military educational institutions and abroad. Mobilization. resources 5.4 million people, including those fit for the military. service 4.2 million people

Health care

In S.-L. per 100 thousand inhabitants there are 68 doctors (2010), 190 persons. Wed honey. staff and midwives, 10 dentists (2007); 36 hospital beds for 10 thousand inhabitants. (2012). Total spending on health care is 3.5% of GDP (2014) [budget financing - 56.1% (2014), private sector - 45.9% (2015)]. Legal regulation of the health care system is carried out by: laws - on food control (1980), on health services (1987), on the protection of the rights of persons with disabilities (2003), cf. honey. staff (2005), about tobacco and alcohol (2006), about private med. institutions (2006), on the treatment and rehabilitation of people with drug addiction. addiction (2007). The health care system is state. Honey. help europ. type provided by the state. institutions, free (private medical services are paid). Tradition is widespread. bunk bed medicine (Ayurveda). The honey system is functioning. insurance. In the state. honey. institutions, the level of services is quite high. In rural areas, ambulance and emergency medical services. no help, qualified. honey. assistance is not provided enough. Medicines are usually dispensed in pharmacies without a prescription. It is not recommended to buy medicines from small local pharmacies (about 60% of them are counterfeit). There is a wide Ayurvedic network. pharmacies. Main infectious diseases: Japanese encephalitis, malaria, hepatitis B, diphtheria, dengue fever, rabies (2015). Main causes of death: ischemic. heart disease, stroke, trauma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cirrhosis of the liver, etc. Resorts and recreation centers: Anuradhapura, Weligama, Galle, Dambulla, Mount Lavinia, Negombo, Polonnaruwa, Sigiriya, Trincomalee, etc.

Sport

Nat. the Olympic Committee was founded and recognized by the IOC in 1937. Sportsmen Sh.-L. (in 1948–72 Ceylon) have been participating in the Olympic Games since 1948 (in 1976 they did not participate); won two silver medals (as of 1.1.2017) - D. White in the 400 m hurdles (London, 1948); S. Jayasinghe in the 200 m race (Sydney, 2000), she is a 6-time winner of the Asian Championships in the 100 m and 200 m race, the silver (1997) and bronze (2007) medalist of the world championships. The most popular sports: cricket, rugby, water sports, badminton, athletics, football, basketball, tennis, baseball, etc. In 1996 S.-L. was (together with India and Pakistan) the organizer of the Cricket World Cup - the competitions were held in the arenas of Colombo (R. Premadasa, 1986, about 40 thousand seats; Sinhalese, 1952, 10 thousand seats) and Kandy ("Asgiriya" , 1915; 10.3 thousand places). The winner of the 1996 tournament was the Sh. -L team; in 2007 she lost in the final to the Australian national team; in 2011 - lost to the Indian national team. In the asset of the national team S.-L. cricket also won 5 Asian Cups (1986, 1997, 2004, 2008, 2014). Among the outstanding cricketers is M. Muralitharan (b. 1972). At the Asian Games (1951–2014), 11 gold, 11 silver, 24 bronze medals were won, at the South Asian Games (since 1984) - 210, 351, 553 (in 1991 and 2006 were held in Colombo). In the Commonwealth Games (1938-50, 1958-70, 1978-82, since 1990) - 4, 7, 2.

Education. Institutions of science and culture

Management of educational institutions is carried out by the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Higher Education, the Ministry of Advanced Training of prof. and technical Education, Ministry of Children Affairs, Women's Empowerment and Provincial Education Councils. Main regulatory documents - acts: about higher education and prof. education (1990, changes 1999), obligatory. teaching (1997), about 9-year elementary school (1999). The education system includes: 1-2-year preschool education (mainly private), 13-year general education (including compulsory for children aged 5 to 14): 5-year primary, 4-year incomplete secondary, 4-year complete secondary, prof.-technical. and higher education. Preschool education covers 95% of children (2013), primary education - 97.2% (2014), secondary education - 85.4% (2011). The literacy rate of the population over 15 years old is 92.6% (2015) (data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics). The system of higher education has 15 state. un-tov. Ch. scientific. institutions, universities, libraries and museums are located in Colombo (including the National Academy of Sciences, the National Museum, the National Council for Scientific Research, University).

Media

Daily newspapers are published (all - Colombo) in Sinhalese: Dynamina (Daily News, from 1909, circulation approx. 254 thousand copies), Janata (People, from 1953, approx. 15 thousand copies), "Dinakaran" ("The Sun", since 1977, about 12 thousand copies), in English. lang. - "Daily News" (since 1918, about 65 thousand copies), "Sunday Observer" [since 1834 (modern name since 1928), approx. 10 thousand copies], in Tamil. - "Tinakaran" ("Svetoch", from 1932, about 14 thousand copies), "Virakesari" ("News", from 1930, about 48 thousand copies). Issued weekly (all - Colombo): in Sinhalese. - gas. "Sirayata" ("Motherland", 10 thousand copies), w. Sarasavia (Higher Knowledge, since 1963, approx. 56 thousand copies), in English. lang. - gas. "Nation" (since 2006, about 15 thousand copies). Radio broadcasting has been carried out since 1923; in 1967 the state was founded. Radio broadcaster. corporation S.-L. Television since 1979. Since 1978, the National has been working in Colombo. information agency "Lankapuvat".

Literature

At the origins of the literature S.-L. - written fixation of the Buddhist canon in lang. fell in the 1st century. BC e. (cm. Pali literature). For a long time, poetry in Sanskrit was created (see. Sanskrit literature). In the 8-9 centuries. n. e. was born sinhalese literature , also developed a literal in Tamil. (cm. Tamil literature). In the 20th century. pl. writers Sh.-L., at home and in the diaspora, write in English. lang.

Architecture and fine arts

Artist. culture S.-L. dates back to the Paleolithic (utensils, tools) and the Neolithic (dolmens, altars, rock paintings). The period of the rise of the Sinhalese culture of the ancient period (3rd century BC - 8th century AD) is associated with Anuradhapura , the heyday of the culture of the early Middle Ages (8-13 centuries) - from Polonnaruwa ... The cities were divided by walls into the Inner (Tsar) city with a palace and the main religious buildings and the Outer city with residential buildings, monasteries, gardens, parks and bazaars. Sinhalese architecture is characterized by the stability of types going back to Indo-Buddhist samples, simplicity and clarity of composition, noble restraint of decor. Buddhist monasteries (viharas), similar to Indian ones, surpassed them in scale and variety of types of buildings: stupa (dagoba, or dagaba), the house of the Bodhi tree (bodhighara), the house of remains (dhatughara) and its varieties (the so-called round temple and house relics), the house of the image (patimaghara), the meeting house (uposathaghara; for initiation into monks and confessions), the house of dharma (dhammasala), cells of monks, refectory, libraries, etc. Dagaba consisted of a 3-tier stylobate, the main volume and a square plan of the superstructure with a tapered spire. The house of the image (Lankatilaka in Polonnaruwa, 12th century) had a composition of 3 rooms: a vestibule (mantapam), a columned vestibule (antharal) and a square, multi-column hall of the sanctuary (garbha-grha). T. n. a round temple (Vata-da-ge in Medirigiriya, 7th century; in Polonnaruwa, 11th century) consisted of a dagaba with 4 Buddha statues around, 2 concentric walls and 3 rings of columns with wood. domed ceiling.

After the conquest of the island by the Tamils \u200b\u200b(from South India), Hindu temples were also erected, including in the Dravidian style (Shiva temples in Polonnaruwa, 11th century; Kovil Nallur-Kandaswami near Jaffna, 15th century, restored in 1734 and 1807) ... The layout of the royal palaces consisted of a center. premises, surrounded by numerous. rooms (the palace of Parakramabahu I in Polonnaruwa, 12th century). Examples of defenses have survived. architecture (in Sigiriya, on a rock, etc.). At 16 - early. 19th centuries trad. architecture continued to develop in Kandy.

Will depict. lawsuit related to ind. artist schools (Andhra, Gupta, Pallavov), is represented by stone monumental Buddhist sculpture, distinguished by the restraint of the image and laconic form: giant (6-16 m) Buddha statues in Avukan (6-8 centuries), in Saseruva, in the Galvihara complex in Polonnaruwa ( all 12th century), a high-relief image of Buddha in a monastery in Buduruvegala (9-10th centuries). At the entrance to the temple, steles were often erected with the image of "gate guards" (nagarajas in the halo of cobra hoods). The reliefs on the steles of the altars-vakhalkada are close to the plastic of the Indus. schools of Bharhut, Sanchi, etc. Numerous survived. metallic figurines of deities, as well as secular sculpture (high relief "Lovers" at the Isurumuniya Monastery in Anuradhapura, 5-7 centuries; statues of secular historical personalities). Monumental painting was greatly developed: images of 17 half-naked women in the role of heavenly apsara maidens throwing flowers in Sigiriya (2nd half of the 5th century), of the Buddha and Hindu deities worshiping him in the Hindagala cave near Kandy (5-7 centuries BC). ). During the Polonnaruwa period, the role of the contour line in painting decreases (frescoes in the chamber for relics near Alutnuvara, 11th century; in Puligoda-Galga near the ancient city of Dimbulagala, 12th century). Painting 18th century in the temples of Kandy, in the cave sanctuaries of Dambulla (included in the list World heritage) are distinguished by their dry interpretation of forms.

From the 16th century. Sinhalese Tradition culture was in decline, Europe was spreading. Influence: forts, churches, etc. were built up in the port cities of Negombo, Colombo, Galle (the city center is included in the World Heritage List), and others. colonial rule in architecture was dominated by the forms of the English. classicism (from the beginning of the 19th century), new types of structures were erected (railway stations, adm. buildings; St. Mary's Church in Negombo, 1874-1922; National Museum, 1877, architect J.J. Smider; old parliament building , 1920–30, architect A. Woodson; Municipal Council building, 1924–28, architect S. Edwards; all in Colombo). Since gaining independence (1948) in construction, along with the achievements of world architecture, including under the influence of the ideas of the historian A. Kumaraswamy, the experience of the nat. architecture: buildings by architects E. Boyd, M. de Silva, J. Bava (Parliament building in Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, 1982; National University of Ruhuna in Matara, 1980-88), W. Plesner (Good Shepherd Chapel in Bandarawela, 1963). Among the buildings in the spirit regionalism : Int. Memorial Congress Center. Solomon Bandaranaike (1971–73), the complex of the office of the High Commissioner of Great Britain (2008, Shot. Architect R. Murphy; both in Colombo).

Easel art developed primarily. in the spirit of English. academicism. The first artist. the association was the Ceylon Society of Arts (since 1891; painters A.K.G.S.Amarasekhar, T. Rajapakshe, J.D.A. Perera, D. Painter, sculptor T. Ranasinghe, and others). In the 1st floor. 20th century canvases on Buddhist themes were created by M. Sarlis. S. Mendis strove to revive the painting traditions of Ajanta and Sigiriya (paintings in the Raja-Mahavihara temple in Kelaniya). Under the influence of the Bengal Revival in 1943, the artist developed. association "Group 43", whose members (H. Pieris, J. Keith, J. Deranyagala and others) combined nar. and mythological. plots with modern techniques. European lawsuit. Increased desire to create nat. artist style led to the organization in 1950 of the Society of nat. art (founded by sculptor and monk Vipulasara Thero); its members (BLA Mendis, KS Vijaya, GVD Heyanthuduva and others) depicted the lush nature of the island, scenes of labor, using the traditions of the Middle-century. murals. Among the artists of the 2nd floor. 20th century: R. Deranigala, R. Fernando, S. Jayawardene, H. Karunaratne, S. Kirinda, I. Peries. Ancient types of art are preserved. crafts: weaving, woodcarving (architectural details, masks) and ivory (figurines, caskets), metal processing (notching, embossing) and precious stones, making lacquerware, ceramics.

Music

Moose. culture S.-L. formed as a result of specific interaction. local elements and south-ind., arab., europe., east-afr. traditions and influences. To the center. and south. Districts of the country are dominated by Sinhalese music and dance traditions, of which the dynamic Kandyan (mainly male) dances accompanied by membranophones and idiophones (central mountainous regions) and masked ruhunu dances (south-west coast) are especially distinctive. All in. areas are strong Tamil traditions. The archaic is preserved locally. oral culture of the Veddas. Trad. muses. the toolkit includes: approx. 30 decomp. membranophones (vertical drum of ber with varieties, drum in the form of an hourglass, etc.) and idiophones; Khoranev double-reed wind instrument, Hagedia trumpet shell. Instrumental ensembles accompany dance and theatrical performances, numerous. Buddhist, Hindu and other holidays, including celebrations. processions with dances and music (esala perahera in Kandy, etc.). In Colombo and other coastal cities under Portuguese, Dutch. and English. influenced local types and genres of academic. and pop music.

Theater

In S.-L. dominates the culture of the Sinhalese. The origins of the theater are in Nar. games, rituals, songs, dances that accompanied the festivities (including religious ones); the chronicle poem "Mahavansa" (5-6 centuries, the alleged author - the monk Mahanama from Anuradhapura) describes venues for the performances of dancers and musicians ("mandara"). With the appearance in the 3rd and 8th centuries. large Sinhalese kingdoms, ideological. the basis of which was Buddhism, a mystery drama arose in monasteries (see Mystery). Tamils \u200b\u200bbrought the classic to the island. Skt. drama (see Sanskrit litasratura). There were decomp. forms of plank beds. theaters, of which the theater of masks has survived (kolam; based on dance and pantomime, genetically related to magic.cults of Bali and tovil; is of a comedic nature, which means that the role in it belongs to the leading comedian - kawataya; common in the areas of Ambalangoda and Bentara), theater pantomimes (sokari; named after the heroine, whose life is the theme of the performances; actors play with masks and without them), muses. drama (nadagam, widespread mainly in the city of Kandy, resembles a local version of the opera with many dances, the actors play in brightly colored masks; this means that part of the content of the play is explained by the host; historical themes prevail). The multi-genre Rukada puppet theater is very popular ("miniature figures", controlled from above with the help of threads). Theater of modern. type arose in the colonial period. In the end. 19th century plays appeared (a clear division into acts, a curtain was introduced, female actresses began to participate). New plays (so-called nritya), while retaining the musical and dance basis, included the dialogue: Romlin (1866), Rolina (1879) by Don Bastian, adaptation of Romeo and Juliet by W. Shakespeare (1884). The works of J. de Silva "Sri Sangobo" (1903), "Vihara Maha Deva" (1916) were staged by prof. troupes "Arya subodha natya sabha" and "Vijaya rank sabha" in Colombo. One of the most popular theaters is the first stationary "Theater of the Clock Tower", founded by the entrepreneur H. Seneviratne (1911, Colombo); since the 1930s there was a cinema in the building, since 1978 Nat. center Int. theatrical institute. In the 1920s – 1930s. plays on social themes appeared (Iranama, Hadisi Viniskaya by BA Jayamanne). In 1944 a school and a dance troupe (from 1955 the Ceylon Ballet of Chitrasena) were created in the capital, led by Chitrasena, the first prof. dancer and choreographer Sh. -L .: elements of tradition are closely connected in his works. dance and bunks. music with modernity - own ballets. compositions "Karadiya" ("Sea water") and "Nala Damayanti" (based on "Mahabharata"); among other productions - "Hiroshima" and "Rice Fields" by V. Kumar, "Bitter Rice" by P. Kumar. The center of theatrical activity is Colombo: Center for the Arts. Lionel Wendta (1953), state. Ensemble nat. dance S.-L. (1973), theaters "Janakaralya" (2003), Arts Center "TrikonE" (2005), "Nelum Pokuna" (2011; named after the construction of the 12th century - a pond in the shape of a lotus flower, also known as the National Theater of the Performing Arts) ... In the 1970s. popularity was gained by "street theaters" (including the groups of G. Hattotuvegama, P. Niriella, H. A. Perera). In 1981, the actress and playwright S. Subasinghe created the first theater for children and youth in Kotte (mainly musical, since 2015 bears her name).

Movie

In S.-L. There are Sinhalo and Tamil cinematography (both developed under the significant influence of Indian cinema). The first screening of films by br. L. and O. Lumiere took place in Colombo in 1901. In 1925 the first fictional film was filmed. "Royal Adventure" by A. G. Nuraboi (presented in India and Singapore; due to the loss of negatives, it was not shown at home). In the 1920s and 30s. Amer. films with the participation of Ch. Chaplin, G. Garbo, R. Valentino and others, from the end. 1930s - early. 1940s - ind. pictures. The formation of cinematography S.-L. contributed by Ind. producer S. M. Nayagam (Tamil-speaking; f. "Kumaraguru", 1946, and others; in 1952 founded the film studio "Sri Murugan Navakala"). Date of birth nat. cinematography is considered to be 1947 (at the Chitra Kala Movietone studio, specially created for filming Sinhalese films, in Madurai, J. Singh's Broken Promise, based on the play by BAV Jayamanne, was released). At the same time, the film "Asokamala" by Sh. Kumar was created, based on the tradition. folk story about love. In 1951 in Colombo dir. S. Vimalavira organized the studio "Nava Jeevana" (in 1953 he released the film "Pittisar Kell"). In 1956, at the Ceylon film studio (Colombo), documentary director L. J. Peries staged an original pseudo-documentary f. "Fate Line" about the life of the village; continued his author's searches in the films "Changes in the Village" (1963), "Golden Shawl" (1967), "Hero of Puran Appu" (1979) and others. Among the means. works of this period - "Seven Seas" by S. Gunasinghe (1967) and "Desert" (1971) by DB Nihalsingha. In 1972, the State. film corporation, the volume of film production has increased (including several films in Tamil, chiefly directed by B. Mahendra). In the 1970s. Sri Lankan cinematography, along with entertainment, also developed topical socio-political. and morals. themes (using the genre of musical melodrama); Peries's films: "Treasure" (1972; in 1997 was recognized in S.-L. as the best film of the fiftieth anniversary, St. Mkf in Venice), "A special look" (1972), "Mangrove island" (1976). From the beginning. 1970s D. Pathiraj began to work - "One League of Heaven" (1974), "How to Be an Adult" (1977), "Wasps are Here" (1978), "On the Go" (1980), "Old Soldier" (1981). From the end. 1970s S. Peries announced herself: "Gehenu Lamai" (1978), "Beyond the River" (1980). In the 1990s. the rise of "independent cinema", the leading representative of the direction - P. Vithanage ("Fire on Ice", 1991; "The Dark Side of the Soul", 1996; "Death of a Full Moon Day" and "Walls Within", both 1997). The most popular actress of this period is N. Fernando. The beginning of the 21st century marked by film achievements: "The Abandoned Land" (2005, ave. MKF in Cannes) and "Between Two Worlds" (2009) by V. Jayasundara; “This is my moon” (2000), “Fly with one wing” (2002), “Fiery letter” (2005; banned by censorship to be shown in the country), “Let her cry” (2016) by A. Handagama, “Generations” by Mahendra (2013).