Abandoned fortresses in India. The largest in India: the Kumbalgarh fortress and the Jain temple of Ranakpur (India) India castle

“Dzhunnar-grad stands on a stone rock, not fortified by anything, protected by God. And the paths to that mountain are a day, they go one by one: the road is narrow, two cannot pass.
(Afanasy Nikitin. "Journey beyond three seas." Translation by P. Smirnov.)

One Chinese traveler noted that back in the 7th century, Indian cities and villages were surrounded by walls with gates and towers built of raw or baked bricks, although our traveler Athanasius Nikitin saw a city there that was not protected by anything but natural obstacles. Throughout almost the entire Middle Ages, incessant wars were going on in India. Local rulers - rajas - fought among themselves, and Arabs and Mongols invaded the country from the north. In India, even a special military-feudal class of Rajputs arose - professional warriors and, in fact, the same knights who constantly studied military craft and were always ready to go on a campaign.

The Indians built five types of fortresses, differing in their location: in the desert, on the water, in the mountains, in the forest and an earthen fortress. The fortress in the mountains was considered the most powerful, as well as the fortress ... which was occupied by a particularly dedicated garrison! The walls of fortresses and castles of nobles in India consisted of two rows of masonry with earthen or gravel backfill between them (they were also built in Europe). The masonry stones were not fastened together: they lay under their own weight. At the same time, the thickness of the walls varied from 2.5 to 10.5 m. Sometimes there were several such walls, and ditches were dug between them, filled with water, or seated with pointed stakes. In the ditches near other castles, poisonous snakes were even kept and fed. Such a "living" weapon was even more intimidating and effective than deep ditches with stakes at the bottom.

Loopholes were made in the walls, but machicolations, so common in Europe, appeared in India only in 1354. The gate was protected by two massive barbicans, between which there was a winding passage. Towers-cabins with loopholes for archers hung over it. The gates themselves in Indian fortresses were always double-winged and very high: an elephant with a palanquin turret on his back had to freely pass through them. However, the high altitude weakened the gate. Therefore, they were made of very durable and not subject to rotting teak wood, upholstered in iron. In addition, teak or iron spikes were placed on their outer wall. They did not allow the war elephants, which the opponents used as living rams, to come close to the gate. But the relief images of elephants that adorned the walls of the gate were considered reliable amulets, as well as statues of Hindu deities.

Kumbalgarh Gate. There are seven of them in the fortress!

In the hot climate of India, water was of paramount importance. Therefore, in every castle or fortress there were reliable wells and tanks for collecting rainwater. Often, gardens and fountains were arranged nearby, refreshing the air and moderating the sweltering tropical heat.

The Kumbalgarh bastions resemble a Buddhist stupa in their shape. Below for scale are people, donkeys and poles with wires.

In every castle and fortress in India there were numerous underground rooms, where everything necessary was prepared in advance in case of a long siege: water, grain, ammunition, etc. The importance of building defensive structures in India was emphasized by the then eerie custom of human sacrifice. It was believed that if such a ceremony was performed at the beginning of construction, then the castle or fortress would be impregnable, since they stand on human blood.

If you look at the walls of many Indian fortresses from below, then ... dizzy!

Medieval fortresses with massive walls and towers were built in India until the middle of the 18th century, which is almost three centuries longer than in Europe. At the same time, the desire to impress both enemies and friends was so great among the Indians that they often erected powerful and thick walls even where there was no need for this. The fortress could be built, for example, on a sheer cliff. The walls and towers were covered with carvings and moldings. Moreover, even the teeth on the walls tried to give a decorative shape.

And this is not at all an Indian nuclear power plant, by no means, but ... the bastions of the Derawar fortress in Bahawalpur.

In southern India, numerous rows of walls were usually built around Hindu temples, which in this case served as castles and fortresses. Gate towers near these walls sometimes reached a height of 50 m and made it possible to observe the surroundings.

The temple tower is 28 meters high. She could be observed.

The fortified mausoleums played the same role - in fact, the same castles or fortresses. However, the most famous mausoleum of India is still not a fortress, but a temple-tomb accessible to everyone. This is the world famous Taj Mahal. It was much more difficult to storm Indian fortresses than European ones, primarily because of the heat, which exhausted people and animals. Throwing machines here were similar to European ones, but baskets or earthenware vessels with snakes were often used as projectiles.

Well, now let's get acquainted with at least some examples of the fortress architecture of India, because it is simply impossible to get acquainted with all of them, because there are a lot of them. Not just a lot, but a lot, and for the most part they themselves are in excellent condition, unlike the numerous knightly castles of the same Britain.

Fortress Golconda. Bala Hissar (Citadel). Golconda, Andhra Pradesh.

To begin with, let's go to the Golconda fortress, which is located just 11 kilometers from the city of Hyderabad, where, by the way, there is a very famous university in India, where many students from Russia study, and there are those who study there for free on grants from the Indian government! Previously, it was here that diamonds were mined, and it was here that all the most famous diamonds in the world were mined! Therefore, local rajahs did not spare money for the fortress. They erected it on a hill 120 meters high, and fortified it with 87 bastions, many of which have rusty cannons to this day.

These are the stone cannonballs used by medieval Indians to shoot at their fortresses. Nearby is an iron cannon that somehow miraculously did not fall into the smelting.

“But we found another gun for you!” Thanks, of course, girls, but only the gun is “not the same”. However, in Indian fortresses there are a lot of all kinds of English weapons.

Four drawbridges lead inside, and there are warehouses, mosques, and 18 mausoleums made of granite. The acoustics of this building are amazing, which, of course, guides use, attracts the attention of tourists: clapping near one gate can be heard a kilometer from this place! Well, the first European to visit here was our well-known Athanasius Nikitin, who not only visited, but also described Golconda.

Ordinary fortress gates.

The gate leaves are covered with spikes.

The most surprising thing is that for its huge size, Golconda as a whole is not at all impressive when compared with other Indian fortresses. Whether it's the Mehrangarh fortress - the citadel of the Rajputs in the northwestern part of the state of Rajasthan.

Mehrangarh Fortress - as if growing out of a rock.

The view of Mehrangarh from above is probably even more impressive than from below.

The fortress is located on high rocks and when you look at it from below, the impression is that it is simply carved out of the rock that stood on it. It seems that human hands are not able to erect such a structure, and even in the heat there, but they did. And when and how, and with whom - all this is known for sure. They started building it in 1459, and finally finished it only in the 17th century!

Another gate, and next to the fortress wall.

The main gate to Mehrangarh is located in the Victory Tower - one of the seven highest towers that guard the approaches to the fortress. Behind it is a road, winding and steep, around which rise walls with terraces of open gazebos and living quarters with barred windows, through which one can watch all who pass below.

A wall with gazebos on it.

The iron tower is famous for its beauty of decoration; The Pearl Palace was built of snow-white marble, and the Throne Hall itself, located on the top floor of the Palace of Flowers, is in no way inferior in its luxury to the premises that were intended by the Great Mughals themselves.

The fortresses of India - literally whatever you take, are very large in size, and seem to grow out of the steep slopes of the hills. The impression is that nothing was impossible for their builders. However, neither aliens nor antediluvian civilizations helped them, and many European travelers saw how they were built.

But this photo has nothing to do with the fortresses, but it is very interesting. There is a temple in India... of rats! They are loved, cherished and fed there!

Republic of India (Hindi भारत गणराज्य , Bhārat Gaṇarājya, English Republic of India) is a state in South Asia. India occupies seventh in the world by area, the second largest in terms of population and is the most populous democratic country in the world. India borders Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal and Bhutan to the northeast, Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. In addition, India has maritime borders with Maldives in the southwest, with Sri Lanka in the south, and Indonesia in the southeast. The disputed territory of the state of Jammu and Kashmir shares a border with Afghanistan.

India is the birthplace Civilizations of the Indus Valley and other ancient civilizations. Throughout most of its history, India has acted as the center of important trade routes and was famous for its riches and high culture.

Religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism originated in India. In the first millennium AD, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam also came to the Indian subcontinent and had a great influence on the formation of the diverse culture of the region.

Between the beginning of the 18th century and the middle of the 19th century, India was gradually colonized by the British Empire. After gaining independence in 1947, the country achieved great success in economic and military development. By the end of the 20th century, India's economy had become one of the fastest growing in the world. In terms of nominal gross domestic product, India ranks 12th in the world, and in terms of purchasing power parity, it ranks fourth. A pressing problem continues to be the high level of poverty and illiteracy of the population.

Historical summary:

The first traces of presence on the territory of India (paleotic axes of the Soan culture in the Punjab) date back to the 2nd interglacial period more than 100 thousand years ago. (Northern India, like Europe, experienced periods of glaciation).

In the south of India, at about the same time, there was also a culture called Madras.

The cradle of all Indian - the Ganges valley, as it is supposed, did not exist at that time - there was a shallow sea.

The oldest evidence of sedentary agricultural cultures - settlements - was discovered in Balochistan and Sind and dates back to 4 thousand BC. In those days, the climate of India, especially in the North-Western part, was significantly different - much more humid. The entire Indus basin was covered with forests; now almost waterless Baluchistan was irrigated by full-flowing rivers, which made it possible for numerous agricultural tribes to exist. The inhabitants of the settlements lived in mud-brick houses, made high-quality ceramics and already used metal. Their religious beliefs were in many ways similar to the beliefs of other agricultural communities of the Near and Middle East, associated with the cult of fertility and the mother goddess.

HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION

In 3 thousand BC, the so-called Harappan civilization was formed in the Indus Valley - named after the modern name of the settlement on the left bank of the river. Dig in the Punjab, where one of the largest cities of this civilization was once located. The second known large city of this civilization - Mahenjo-Daro - is located on the right bank of the Indus, about 400 km. from its mouth. In Kalibangan, near the border of India with Pakistan, at the mouth of the ancient Saraswati River (now almost dry), another city was found belonging to this civilization. A large number of smaller towns and settlements are also known. In general, the Harappan civilization occupied a vast territory even by modern standards - about 1,500 km long from north to south.

Mahenjo-Daro and Harappi arose presumably in the middle of 3 thousand BC. and existed at least in the 2nd millennium BC. Obviously, even then these cities maintained contact with the civilizations of Mesopotamia. The Harappan civilization was most likely theocratic, i.e. ruled by priests.

Both cities were built according to a similar plan - a citadel with battlements and public buildings inside, around which the city was located, covering an area of ​​\u200b\u200bmore than a square kilometer. Completely straight streets divided the city into quarters. The construction material for the buildings was usually fired brick of extremely high quality.

Houses with a height of 2 floors were also built according to the same plan - around a rectangular courtyard, a suite of rooms. The entrance to the house was usually not from the street, but from the alley; all windows overlooked the courtyard.

The houses had rooms for ablutions - a kind of "bath" with a system of drainpipes leading into the city sewer. City sewer pipes ran under the streets and were covered with special brick slabs.

In Mahenjo-Daro, one of the oldest swimming pools in the world, about 11 X 7 m in size, was opened.

In Harappi, north of the citadel, a large granary measuring 45 X 60 m was found. As studies show, the main grain crops of the Harappan civilization were wheat and barley. Buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, donkeys, dogs and various poultry have already been tamed.

To the surprise of archaeologists, none of the structures at Mahenjo-Daro and Harappi could be identified as a temple.

There was already a written language, most likely of a pictographic nature, with about 270 characters. Many of these signs are displayed on seals found during excavations. Unfortunately, despite all attempts, the writing of the Harappan civilization has not yet been deciphered.

Around 1500 BC, a powerful earthquake occurs that destroys many cities of the Harappan civilization, and all after that invaders from the west invade the Indus Valley, who finally destroyed this culture. There is still no established opinion whether these were already Aryan tribes, or earlier conquerors.

There are numerous theories about the origin of the Aryans. Trying to summarize the most reasonable of them, we can say that around 2000 BC, somewhere on the territory of modern Ukraine, barbarian tribes lived: rather tall, fair-skinned people. They were perhaps the first in the world to tame horses and harness them to light, high-speed wagons with spokes. These tribes were mainly engaged in cattle breeding and some agriculture.

At the beginning of the 2000 BC, due to some reason (overpopulation? drought?), these tribes set in motion and subsequently settled vast territories from Ireland in the west to India in the east. They conquered local peoples and mixed with them, forming the ruling elite.

The penetration of the Aryans into India was not a one-time action, but a process that stretched over hundreds of years. This period in the history of India is called Aryan or Vedic. It was during this era that the greatest monuments of Indian and world culture were created - the poetic epics "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana". (However, there are opinions that these ancient epics were created much earlier - about 6000 thousand years BC, that is, when the Aryans still lived in their ancestral home).

The Aryans did not create an urban civilization, the economic basis of their existence was pastoralism and agriculture, and cattle occupied a very important place in the economy. The horse was also extremely important in the life of the Aryans, but was used mainly for military purposes.

It was in the Vedic era that the main estates (castes) were formed. The family, which was the basic unit of Aryan society - strictly patriarchal, marriage - monogamous and indissoluble. Numerous finds during the excavation of dice testified to the passion of the Aryans for gambling. They also loved intoxicating drinks (soma and sura).

The material culture of the Aryans reached a high development. They mastered the art of working bronze, made weapons and tools from it (it should be noted that ancient copper mines were found in the alleged ancestral home of the Aryans).

LATE VEDIC PERIOD

Between the invasion of the Aryans in the Indus Valley and the Age of Buddha, about 5 centuries passed. During this time, the Aryans moved further east down the Ganges, their culture adapted and changed to local conditions. It is in the east that new kingdoms arise, which later played a significant role in Indian history. Many researchers believe that the "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana" reflect the events that took place during this period. However, there are still too many mysteries here - and it is still impossible to finally confirm or date anything.

THE AGE OF BUDDHA. MAGADHO-MAURIAN STATE.

In the era which later came to be called the era of the Buddha, the center of Indian civilization is moving eastward. Here four kingdoms arise and flourish: Koshala, Magadha, Vatsa and Avanti, eclipsing the ancient country of Kuru in Punjab both economically and politically. In the middle of the 1st millennium BC, one of them - Magadha - managed to create, in fact, the first Indian empire, whose possessions included the entire Ganges basin and almost all of Northern India, with the exception of Rajasthan, Sindh and Punjab.

Around 326, Alexander the Great, after conquering the Persian empire of the Achaemenids and marching into Bactria, overcomes the Hindu Kush and invades India. Alexander's troops cross the Indus and enter the Punjab. Alexander defeats the troops of the Punjabi king Por and begins an offensive inland, but under the threat of a rebellion in his troops, he is forced to turn back.

After the death of Alexander to one of the commanders of Alexander, Seleucus Nicator in 305 BC again invades India, however, apparently, he is defeated by the emperor of the Magadho-Maurian state of Chandraguta.

Around 269 BC. Ashoka becomes the emperor - later, one of the greatest rulers of India. According to Buddhist sources, Ashoka illegally seized the throne, killed all possible rivals and began to rule as a tyrant, but eight years after ascending the throne, the king morally and spiritually became a completely different person and began to pursue a new policy. He abandoned the usual territorial expansion, and domestic policy was significantly relaxed. He forbade animal sacrifice, even replaced the traditional pastimes of Indian kings - hunting - with pilgrimages to Buddhist shrines.

According to tradition, thanks to the son (brother?) of Ashoka - Mahendra (Mahinda), Sri Lanka was converted to Buddhism.

Emperor Ashoka died about 232 BC, apparently having already lost power by this time. Ashoka's heirs ruled India for about 50 years.

THE AGE OF INVASIONS

In 183 BC. Pushyamitra Shunga, one of the commanders of the last Mauryan king Brihadrahti, seized power as a result of a palace coup. The new king is returning to the old Hindu religion. There is a gradual "erosion" of the Mauryan kingdom - many principalities are moving away from it and becoming independent.

At this time, on the northwestern borders of India, as a result of the collapse of the Seleucid empire, independent Hellenistic states of Bactria and Parthia were formed. The Bactrian Greeks begin their expansion into northwestern India. They take over most of the Indus and Punjab valleys and raid far into the Ganges valley. Subsequently, this Greek state in northwestern India breaks up into tiny Greco-Bactrian kingdoms.

In the 2nd c. BC hordes of nomads from Central Asia (known from Chinese sources under the name of the Yuezhi) moved west, crowding the Scythians. The Scythians, under pressure from the north, attacked Bactria and captured it, and subsequently, pressed by the same nomads, defeated Parthia and the Greek kingdoms of northwestern India. The power of the Scythians (Saks, Shaks) spread to Mathura itself. The earliest known to us the king of the Scythians, who ruled in India, is Maues (80 BC?).

In the 1st century AD Kunjuly Kadziva from the Yuezhi Kushan tribe concentrated power over Bactria in his hands, and then he would be able to capture northwestern India as well. One of his followers, Kanishka, manages to concentrate power over a significant part of Central Asia and northwestern India (up to Varanasi) in his hands. Under Kanishka, Buddhism began to penetrate Central Asia and the Far East.

Kanishka's successors ruled northwestern India until the middle of the 3rd century, when King Vasudeva was defeated by Shapur I, a representative of the new Iranian Sassanid dynasty. Northwestern India falls under Iranian influence.

In the 1st century BC - 4th c. AD on the Deccan peninsula, several new kingdoms (Orissa, the kingdom of Satavahans) appeared, which existed for several hundred years.

In the south of India in Tamil Nadu during this period there are several Tamil states. Good navigators, Tamils ​​invade about. Lanka and for some time capture its northern part. The Tamils ​​had close trade relations with Egypt and the Roman Empire.

THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS

In 320 AD in the history of India appears Chandra Gupta, whose descendants largely restored the power of the Mauryan Empire.

Under his successor, Samudragupta (c. 335-376), a great empire is again established in India, stretching from Assam to the borders of the Punjab. The Shaks (descendants of the Scythians) who ruled northwestern India manage to shake the Gup empire, but in 338 Chandra Gupta II finally defeats the Shaks.

At the end of the reign of Kumaragupta I (415-454), northwestern India was again invaded by northern nomads, known from Byzantine sources under the name of the Huns.

His son Scanlagupta (circa 455-467) succeeded in restoring the empire.

At the end of the 5th c. the Huns again moved to India and, starting from 500, Western India was in the hands of the Hunnic kings. In 530, Narasinkhgupta drove out the Huns, but by 550, the Gupta empire ceased to exist.

As a result of Harsha (606-647) from the side branch of the Gupta dynasty, he regains control over a significant part of the empire from Gujarat to Bengal.

After the death of Harsha, a great turmoil begins. - the incessant alternation of strife between local dynasties. In 812, the Arabs captured Sindh.

In 986, the emir from the city of Hansa in Afghanistan, Sabuktigin, launched the first raid on northwestern India. From 997, his son Mahmud began to make systematic campaigns against the rich Indian kingdoms.

The alliance of Indian kings, organized to repulse Mahmud, was defeated in 1001 near Peshawar. By 1027, Mahmud annexed to his state all the northwestern regions and the Punjab, along with the Arab state of Sindh.

THE ERA OF THE MUGHOLS

The dynasty of Mahmud in Afghanistan was supplanted by a new dynasty, one of its representatives, known as Muhammad Ghuri, continued the conquest of the Hindu states. His commander Qutb ud-din Aibak occupied Delhi, another commander, Muhammad ibn Bakhtiyar, moved down the Ganges and devastated Bihar, then, almost without resistance, occupied Bengal. Starting from the beginning of the 13th century. and up to the 18th century. Muslim conquerors dominated northern India. In 1206, Muhammad ibn-Bakhtiyar was killed and the first Sultan of Delhi was his commander Qutb-ud-Din, a freedman slave. It was Qutb-un-Din that laid the foundation for the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526). During the existence of the Delhi Sultanate, several dynasties have changed: Ghulams (1206-1290), Khilji (1290-1320), Tughlaka (1320-1413), Sayyids (1414-1451), Lodi (1451-1526). During the reign of Muhammad Tughlaq, almost all of India was conquered, with the exception of the South and Kashmir.
In 1398, the Delhi Sultanate was attacked by the invasion of Timur, the ruler of Samarkand. The Sultanate began to disintegrate into separate parts, by the end of the 16th century. it included only Delhi with its immediate environs.
In the 15-16 centuries. in South India, there was the Hindu Vijaynagar Empire and the Musumalman Empire of the Bahmanids.

In 1498, the Portuguese first appeared off the coast of India and began to gain a foothold on its western coast.

At the beginning of the 16th century on the ruins of the Delhi Sultanate, a new powerful empire begins to take shape, the founder of which was Babur, a native of Central Asia. In 1526 he invaded India. In the battle of Panipat, he divided the troops of Ibrahim Lodi and took the throne of Delhi. Thus was founded the state of the Great Moguls.

Initially, the Mughal empire was limited to the interfluve of the Ganges and Janma, but already under Babur's grandson Akbar (1556-1505), all Northern and Central India and Afghanistan were conquered.

During the reign of Akbar's son Jahangir (1605-1627), the first English ambassador arrived in India.

Akbar's grandson Shahjahan (reigned 1628-1658) moved the capital from Delhi to Agra.

The last of the great Moghuls, the son of Shahjakhan Aurangzeb (1658-1707) ascended the throne, imprisoning his father in the Red Fort of Agra. After the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal empire collapsed.

COMING OF EUROPEANS

Vasco da Gama, the first European Muscovite to reach India by way, landed in the area of ​​the modern city of Calcutta in 1498.

In 1600, the English East India Company was founded. Her first ship arrived in India in 1608.
In 1613, the company, by decree of Emperor Jahangir, received the right to trade.
In 1640, on the East coast of India, in the region of the modern city of Madras, the Fort of St. George was founded by the Company.
In 1668, on the West Coast of India, for 10 pounds, the Company acquired the island of Bombay, where a trading post was established.
In 1690, Calcutta was founded on the site of the village transferred to the Company.
Gradually, the East India Company establishes control over the entire Ganges delta.
As a result of several Anglo-Mysore wars in 1799, Mysore and Hyderabad join in South India. At the beginning of the 19th century Maharashtra was conquered, in 1829 - Assam, in 1843 - Sindh, in 1849 - Punjab. By the middle of the 19th century. Almost all of India was under the rule of the British crown.

In 1857, a powerful sepoy uprising broke out (sepoys are Indians who served in the Anglo-Indian army), called the First War of Indian Independence. The uprising was crushed, but Britain revised its policy towards India. In 1858, the East India Company was liquidated, and India became a possession (colony) of the British Empire.

British colonial domination continued until 1947. Resistance to British dominance has always existed, and since the 1920s it has gained real scope. In 1947, Britain was forced to make a decision to grant independence to India. According to this law, two dominions are created in place of British India - India and Pakistan. Pakistan included the predominantly Muslim western and eastern regions of India. Later (in 1971), the eastern regions separated from Pakistan and the state of Bangladesh was proclaimed here.

INDEPENDENT INDIA

• On January 26, India became an independent sovereign republic.
• In 1951, the first general elections were held in the country.
• In 1954, India annexed the French colony of Pondicherry.
• In 1961, India became one of the founders of the non-aligned movement. In the same year, the Portuguese colonies of Goa, Daman, and Diu were annexed to India.

“Dzhunnar-grad stands on a stone rock, not fortified by anything, protected by God. And the paths to that mountain are a day, they go one by one: the road is narrow, two cannot pass.
(Afanasy Nikitin. "Journey beyond three seas." Translation by P. Smirnov.)

One Chinese traveler noted that back in the 7th century, Indian cities and villages were surrounded by walls with gates and towers built of raw or baked bricks, although our traveler Athanasius Nikitin saw a city there that was not protected by anything but natural obstacles. Throughout almost the entire Middle Ages, incessant wars were going on in India. Local rulers - rajas - fought among themselves, and Arabs and Mongols invaded the country from the north. In India, even a special military-feudal class of Rajputs arose - professional warriors and, in fact, the same knights who constantly studied military craft and were always ready to go on a campaign.

The Indians built five types of fortresses, differing in their location: in the desert, on the water, in the mountains, in the forest and an earthen fortress. The fortress in the mountains was considered the most powerful, as well as the fortress ... which was occupied by a particularly dedicated garrison! The walls of fortresses and castles of nobles in India consisted of two rows of masonry with earthen or gravel backfill between them (they were also built in Europe). The masonry stones were not fastened together: they lay under their own weight. At the same time, the thickness of the walls varied from 2.5 to 10.5 m. Sometimes there were several such walls, and ditches were dug between them, filled with water, or seated with pointed stakes. In the ditches near other castles, poisonous snakes were even kept and fed. Such a "living" was even more frightening and effective than deep ditches with stakes at the bottom.

The largest fortress in India, Kumbalgarh. It has 700 (!) bastions, and inside there are more than 360 temples. The rulers of Mewar shut themselves up in it in case of danger. But today it is open and you can visit it by driving 90 km north of the city of Udaipur.

Loopholes were made in the walls, but machicolations, so common in Europe, appeared in India only in 1354. The gate was protected by two massive barbicans, between which there was a winding passage. Towers-cabins with loopholes for archers hung over it. The gates themselves in Indian fortresses were always double-winged and very high: an elephant with a palanquin turret on his back had to freely pass through them. However, the high altitude weakened the gate. Therefore, they were made of very durable and not subject to rotting teak wood, upholstered in iron. In addition, teak or iron spikes were placed on their outer wall. They did not allow the war elephants, which the opponents used as living rams, to come close to the gate. But the relief images of elephants that adorned the walls of the gate were considered reliable amulets, as well as statues of Hindu deities.

In the hot climate of India, water was of paramount importance. Therefore, in every castle or fortress there were reliable wells and tanks for collecting rainwater. Often, gardens and fountains were arranged nearby, refreshing the air and moderating the sweltering tropical heat.

In every castle and fortress in India there were numerous underground rooms, where everything necessary was prepared in advance in case of a long siege: water, grain, ammunition, etc. The importance of building defensive structures in India was emphasized by the then eerie custom of human sacrifice. It was believed that if such a ceremony was performed at the beginning of construction, then the castle or fortress would be impregnable, since they stand on human blood.

Medieval fortresses with massive walls and towers were built in India until the middle of the 18th century, which is almost three centuries longer than in Europe. At the same time, the desire to impress both enemies and friends was so great among the Indians that they often erected powerful and thick walls even where there was no need for this. The fortress could be built, for example, on a sheer cliff. The walls and towers were covered with carvings and moldings. Moreover, even the teeth on the walls tried to give a decorative shape.

And this is not at all an Indian nuclear power plant, by no means, but ... the bastions of the Derawar fortress in Bahawalpur.

In southern India, numerous rows of walls were usually built around Hindu temples, which in this case served as castles and fortresses. Gate towers near these walls sometimes reached a height of 50 m and made it possible to observe the surroundings.

The fortified mausoleums played the same role - in fact, the same castles or fortresses. However, the most famous mausoleum of India is still not a fortress, but a temple-tomb accessible to everyone. This is the world famous Taj Mahal. It was much more difficult to storm Indian fortresses than European ones, primarily because of the heat, which exhausted people and animals. Throwing machines here were similar to European ones, but baskets or earthenware vessels with snakes were often used as projectiles.

Well, now let's get acquainted with at least some examples of the fortress architecture of India, because it is simply impossible to get acquainted with all of them, because there are a lot of them. Not just a lot, but a lot, and for the most part they themselves are in excellent condition, unlike the numerous knightly castles of the same Britain.

To begin with, let's go to the Golconda fortress, which is located just 11 kilometers from the city of Hyderabad, where, by the way, there is a very famous university in India, where many students from Russia study, and there are those who study there for free on grants from the Indian government! Previously, it was here that diamonds were mined, and it was here that all the most famous diamonds in the world were mined! Therefore, local rajahs did not spare money for the fortress. They erected it on a hill 120 meters high, and fortified it with 87 bastions, many of which have rusty cannons to this day.

Four drawbridges lead inside, and there are warehouses, mosques, and 18 mausoleums made of granite. The acoustics of this building are amazing, which, of course, guides use, attracts the attention of tourists: clapping near one gate can be heard a kilometer from this place! Well, the first European to visit here was our well-known Athanasius Nikitin, who not only visited, but also described Golconda.

The most surprising thing is that for its huge size, Golconda as a whole is not at all impressive when compared with other Indian fortresses. Whether it's the Mehrangarh fortress - the citadel of the Rajputs in the northwestern part of the state of Rajasthan.

The fortress is located on high rocks and when you look at it from below, the impression is that it is simply carved out of the rock that stood on it. It seems that human hands are not able to erect such a structure, and even in the heat there, but they did. And when and how, and with whom - all this is known for sure. They started building it in 1459, and finally finished it only in the 17th century!

The main gate to Mehrangarh is located in the Victory Tower - one of the seven highest towers that guard the approaches to the fortress. Behind it is a road, winding and steep, around which rise walls with terraces of open gazebos and living quarters with barred windows, through which one can watch all who pass below.

The iron tower is famous for its beauty of decoration; The Pearl Palace was built of snow-white marble, and the Throne Hall itself, located on the top floor of the Palace of Flowers, is in no way inferior in its luxury to the premises that were intended by the Great Mughals themselves.

“Dzhunnar-grad stands on a stone rock, not fortified by anything, protected by God. And the paths to that mountain are a day, they go one by one: the road is narrow, two cannot pass.
(Afanasy Nikitin. "Journey beyond three seas." Translation by P. Smirnov.)

One Chinese traveler noted that back in the 7th century, Indian cities and villages were surrounded by walls with gates and towers built of raw or baked bricks, although our traveler Athanasius Nikitin saw a city there that was not protected by anything but natural obstacles. Throughout almost the entire Middle Ages, incessant wars were going on in India. Local rulers - rajas - fought among themselves, and Arabs and Mongols invaded the country from the north. In India, even a special military-feudal class of Rajputs arose - professional warriors and, in fact, the same knights who constantly studied military craft and were always ready to go on a campaign.

The Indians built five types of fortresses, differing in their location: in the desert, on the water, in the mountains, in the forest and an earthen fortress. The fortress in the mountains was considered the most powerful, as well as the fortress ... which was occupied by a particularly dedicated garrison! The walls of fortresses and castles of nobles in India consisted of two rows of masonry with earthen or gravel backfill between them (they were also built in Europe). The masonry stones were not fastened together: they lay under their own weight. At the same time, the thickness of the walls varied from 2.5 to 10.5 m. Sometimes there were several such walls, and ditches were dug between them, filled with water, or seated with pointed stakes. In the ditches near other castles, poisonous snakes were even kept and fed. Such a "living" was even more frightening and effective than deep ditches with stakes at the bottom.

The largest fortress in India, Kumbalgarh. It has 700 (!) bastions, and inside there are more than 360 temples. The rulers of Mewar shut themselves up in it in case of danger. But today it is open and you can visit it by driving 90 km north of the city of Udaipur.

Loopholes were made in the walls, but machicolations, so common in Europe, appeared in India only in 1354. The gate was protected by two massive barbicans, between which there was a winding passage. Towers-cabins with loopholes for archers hung over it. The gates themselves in Indian fortresses were always double-winged and very high: an elephant with a palanquin turret on his back had to freely pass through them. However, the high altitude weakened the gate. Therefore, they were made of very durable and not subject to rotting teak wood, upholstered in iron. In addition, teak or iron spikes were placed on their outer wall. They did not allow the war elephants, which the opponents used as living rams, to come close to the gate. But the relief images of elephants that adorned the walls of the gate were considered reliable amulets, as well as statues of Hindu deities.

In the hot climate of India, water was of paramount importance. Therefore, in every castle or fortress there were reliable wells and tanks for collecting rainwater. Often, gardens and fountains were arranged nearby, refreshing the air and moderating the sweltering tropical heat.

In every castle and fortress in India there were numerous underground rooms, where everything necessary was prepared in advance in case of a long siege: water, grain, ammunition, etc. The importance of building defensive structures in India was emphasized by the then eerie custom of human sacrifice. It was believed that if such a ceremony was performed at the beginning of construction, then the castle or fortress would be impregnable, since they stand on human blood.

Medieval fortresses with massive walls and towers were built in India until the middle of the 18th century, which is almost three centuries longer than in Europe. At the same time, the desire to impress both enemies and friends was so great among the Indians that they often erected powerful and thick walls even where there was no need for this. The fortress could be built, for example, on a sheer cliff. The walls and towers were covered with carvings and moldings. Moreover, even the teeth on the walls tried to give a decorative shape.

And this is not at all an Indian nuclear power plant, by no means, but ... the bastions of the Derawar fortress in Bahawalpur.

In southern India, numerous rows of walls were usually built around Hindu temples, which in this case served as castles and fortresses. Gate towers near these walls sometimes reached a height of 50 m and made it possible to observe the surroundings.

The fortified mausoleums played the same role - in fact, the same castles or fortresses. However, the most famous mausoleum of India is still not a fortress, but a temple-tomb accessible to everyone. This is the world famous Taj Mahal. It was much more difficult to storm Indian fortresses than European ones, primarily because of the heat, which exhausted people and animals. Throwing machines here were similar to European ones, but baskets or earthenware vessels with snakes were often used as projectiles.

Well, now let's get acquainted with at least some examples of the fortress architecture of India, because it is simply impossible to get acquainted with all of them, because there are a lot of them. Not just a lot, but a lot, and for the most part they themselves are in excellent condition, unlike the numerous knightly castles of the same Britain.

To begin with, let's go to the Golconda fortress, which is located just 11 kilometers from the city of Hyderabad, where, by the way, there is a very famous university in India, where many students from Russia study, and there are those who study there for free on grants from the Indian government! Previously, it was here that diamonds were mined, and it was here that all the most famous diamonds in the world were mined! Therefore, local rajahs did not spare money for the fortress. They erected it on a hill 120 meters high, and fortified it with 87 bastions, many of which have rusty cannons to this day.

Four drawbridges lead inside, and there are warehouses, mosques, and 18 mausoleums made of granite. The acoustics of this building are amazing, which, of course, guides use, attracts the attention of tourists: clapping near one gate can be heard a kilometer from this place! Well, the first European to visit here was our well-known Athanasius Nikitin, who not only visited, but also described Golconda.

The most surprising thing is that for its huge size, Golconda as a whole is not at all impressive when compared with other Indian fortresses. Whether it's the Mehrangarh fortress - the citadel of the Rajputs in the northwestern part of the state of Rajasthan.

The fortress is located on high rocks and when you look at it from below, the impression is that it is simply carved out of the rock that stood on it. It seems that human hands are not able to erect such a structure, and even in the heat there, but they did. And when and how, and with whom - all this is known for sure. They started building it in 1459, and finally finished it only in the 17th century!

The main gate to Mehrangarh is located in the Victory Tower - one of the seven highest towers that guard the approaches to the fortress. Behind it is a road, winding and steep, around which rise walls with terraces of open gazebos and living quarters with barred windows, through which one can watch all who pass below.

The iron tower is famous for its beauty of decoration; The Pearl Palace was built of snow-white marble, and the Throne Hall itself, located on the top floor of the Palace of Flowers, is in no way inferior in its luxury to the premises that were intended by the Great Mughals themselves.

Throughout almost the entire history of India, there have been ongoing wars on its territory. Local princes fought each other, empires met in mortal battles. Arabs, Mongols, British, Dutch, French and Portuguese tried to bite off a piece of "Indian pie". All this forced the Indian rulers to build forts, fortresses and citadels on the borders of possessions or in areas where important trade routes passed. Likewise, most rajas and maharajas built strongholds in the heart of their territories. The fortification of such a plan with palaces and dozens of temples and mosques resembled a small city. For a long time such fortresses were the stronghold of various dynasties. However, with the advent of more modern weapons and the firm accession of the British Empire to the throne of India, the need for fortresses disappeared and most of them were abandoned and left to be torn to pieces by nature and time.
Jivdhan fort
An ancient Indian fortress located on a hill, in the Western Ghats mountain range, near the small town of Ghatghar (Pune District, Maharashtra). It was built to control trade routes in the area of ​​the important Naneghat mountain pass connecting the Indian mainland with the western coast. The name of this pass from the local is translated approximately as a coin pass (nane-pass, ghat-coin). In 1818 the fort was captured by the British. The invaders plundered and destroyed the fort, completely destroying all approaches to it. Now the ascent to the ruins of the fortress is popular among trekking enthusiasts and has a high difficulty category (V category)

Bankot Fort
There is no consensus among historians and researchers about the date of construction and who built the fortress at the mouth of the Savitri River. The first mention of Bankot dates back to the Adil Shahs (1490–1686). In 1548, the Portuguese captured the fortress and took control of it. Some time later, the commander of the Maratha fleet, Kanhoje Angre, recaptured the fortress from the Europeans and included it in the Maratha Empire under a new name - Himmatgad. After the Marathas, for a short period of time, the fortress came under the control of the British and it is again renamed in honor of the English queen in Fort Victoria. However, the citadel was far from the trade routes of the East India Company and its location no longer had any strategic importance, and the British, not seeing any advantage for their interests, left the citadel.

Kavaledurga Fort
Kavaledurga Fort - located in the Western Ghats, at an altitude of 1541 meters, 18 kilometers from the city of Tertaholli (Karnataka). The citadel was a stronghold of the Keladi Nayaks, who were vassals of the rulers of the Vijayanagar Empire. The construction of the fortress dates back to the 9th century, in the 14th century the defensive structures were overhauled and slightly rebuilt. The fortress is located on a hill and is surrounded by three rows of walls repeating the offices of the hill. The walls, almost 9 meters high, are made of large granite blocks, watchtowers were also erected in some places. Inside the citadel there were 15 temples (only three survived to this day), the palace of the ruler, various utility and storage facilities (granaries, an arsenal, stalls for elephants and horses) and numerous reservoirs and pools. Now only some sections of the fortress walls and three small temples remain from the former majestic fortress; all other buildings lie in ruins, destroyed by conquerors or by time.

Gudibande Fort
It is believed that the fortress was built by the local Robin Hood - Byre Gowda almost 400 years ago, in the 17th century. The fort has a seven-level system of defensive structures interconnected by passages for the movement of troops. The main feature of the fort is a system for collecting rainwater. For this, 19 reservoirs of various sizes were cut in the rocks at different levels of fortification. At the highest point of the fortress there is a temple dedicated to Shiva, highly revered by the locals.

Gingee Fort
160 kilometers from Chennai, the capital of the state of Tamil Nadu, there is a well-preserved example of the military engineering art of ancient India - Gingi Fort (Senji). This is one of the most heavily fortified fortresses in India at that time. The Maratha ruler Shivaji rated it as "the most impregnable fortress in India", and the British called it the "Troy of the East". Built in the 15-16 centuries, the fortress consists of three citadels located separately on the tops of adjacent hills. Fortifications on the hills are interconnected by walls with a total length of about 13 kilometers. Inside the fortifications, covering an area of ​​11 square kilometers, there are granaries, prison cells, sanctuaries and temples, as well as several reservoirs for storing water. The main attraction of the fort is an eight-story, 27 meters high tower with a pyramidal upper part - Kalyan Mahal. The ancient "high-rise" was built in the Indo-Islamic style, there is only one large room on each floor, and it is also equipped with a complex system of water supply even to the highest floors.