Scientists and travelers of the 19th century. Forgotten Russian travelers of the 19th century. "Golden Age" of Russian Literature

These scientists and researchers are fanatical people. When you read about what they had to endure and experience on distant geographical expeditions, you wonder why they needed it? Part of the answer probably still applies to these people themselves, like Fedor Konyukhov - it’s in their blood. And the other part, of course, is serving the Motherland, the Fatherland, the country. I think they fully understood that they were increasing the greatness, wealth and prosperity of their state. If it weren’t for them, a citizen of another country would have done it and the maps of the World would probably have looked different.

Here are some things you might not know...

The 18th century was marked in Russian geographical history primarily by the Great Northern Expedition. Started in December 1724 by personal decree of Peter I (First Kamchatka expedition Vitus Bering), it continued in 1733-1743, already under Anna Ioannovna. The expedition consisted of seven independent missions moving along the Arctic coast of Siberia to the shores of North America and Japan. The result of this large-scale project was the publication of the first complete geographical map Russian Empire.

Vasily Pronchishchev. Great Northern Expedition. 1735-1736

One of the participants of the Great Northern Expedition. A legendary figure among Russian polar explorers. Legendary and romantic. Midshipman. He studied at the Maritime Academy together with Semyon Chelyuskin and Khariton Laptev, who also participated in this expedition under his leadership. And earlier, in 1722, he took part in Peter’s Persian campaign. And in appearance, by the way, he was very similar to the emperor.

His wife Tatyana took part in the expedition with him. For that time it was so incredible that her presence on the ship was unofficial

During the Great Northern Expedition, Pronchishchev’s detachment, consisting of 50 people, leaving Yakutsk in June 1735 on the sailing-rowing boat “Yakutsk”, compiled an accurate map of the channel and mouth of the Lena River, a map of the coast of the Laptev Sea and discovered many islands lying north of the Taimyr Peninsula. In addition, Pronchishchev’s group advanced north much further than other detachments: to 77° 29′ N. w.

But Pronchishchev also entered the history of Arctic exploration thanks to his romantic story. His wife Tatyana took part in the expedition with him. For that time it was so incredible that her presence on the ship was unofficial. In August 1736, during one of the forays to the polar islands, Pronchishchev broke his leg and soon died from complications caused by an open fracture. His wife survived him by only a few days. They say she died of grief. They were buried in the same grave at Cape Tumul near the mouth of the Olenyok River (today the village of Ust-Olenyok is located here).

Navigator Semyon Chelyuskin became the new head of the detachment, and after he went with the sled train to Yakutsk with expedition reports, he was replaced by Khariton Laptev. Surprisingly, the names of Chelyuskin and Laptev were reflected much more clearly in the public consciousness than the name of their commander Pronchishchev. True, in the spring of 2018 the film “The First” will be released, which tells about the fate of the Pronchishchevs. The role of Vasily will be played by Evgeny Tkachuk (Grigory Melekhov in “ Quiet Don"and Mishka Yaponchik in the series of the same name). Perhaps the name of Pronchishchev will yet take its rightful place among other great Arctic explorers.

Fedor Soimonov. Map of the Caspian Sea. 1731

This man's life just begs to be shown on the silver screen. He, like Pronchishchev, participated in the Persian campaign of Peter I. He was also a midshipman. But fate connected him not with the Arctic, but with the Caspian Sea. Fyodor Soimonov went down in Russian history as the first Russian hydrographer.

Strange as it may seem, the length and breadth of the Caspian Sea that we know today was still a complete terra incognita in the 18th century. Yes, since ancient times, dashing Volga people - ushkuiniki - walked along it to Persia for princesses, to throw them overboard into the oncoming wave, and other other goods. It was called “going for zipuns.” But all this was a complete amateur performance. Fyodor Soimonov was the first to put the Caspian Sea with all its bays, shoals and peninsulas on the map of the Russian Empire.

In Nerchinsk and Irkutsk, Soimonov organized the first navigation schools in Siberia, where he taught personally. Then for six years he was governor of Siberia

Also, under his leadership, the first detailed atlas was published Baltic Sea and an atlas prepared for publication White Sea, but here things start to get weird. Of course, this was connected with behind-the-scenes political games. In 1740, Soimonov was stripped of all ranks, whipped (!) and sent to hard labor. Two years later, Elizabeth I returned him to service, but left him in Siberia. In Nerchinsk and Irkutsk, Soimonov organized the first navigation schools in Siberia, where he taught personally. Then for six years he was governor of Siberia. At the age of 70, he was finally allowed to return to Moscow. He died at the age of 88 on his estate near Serpukhov.

Interesting fact. Soimonovsky Proezd in Moscow, not far from the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, is named in honor of Soimonov’s son, Mikhail, a remarkable personality in his own way, one of the organizers of mining in Russia.

Savva Loshkin. New Earth. Mid-18th century

G. A. Travnikov. Russian North

If our previous two heroes were the sovereign's people and made their travels on duty, then the Pomor Savva Loshkin, a native of the village of Olonets, acted only at his own peril and risk. He was the first person in the history of the development of the Russian North who walked around New Earth from North.

Loshkin is an almost mythological personality, but anyone who respects himself northern sailor knows his name despite the fact that the only official source telling about his three-year journey is the story of Fedot Rachmanin, recorded in 1788 by corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences Vasily Krestinin. Even the years of Savva Loshkin’s journey are not known to us for sure. Some researchers believe that this is the early 1760s, others - that it is the 1740s

Nikolai Chelobitchikov. Malacca, Canton. 1760-1768.

While some were exploring the North, others were moving south. Merchant Nikolai Chelobitchikov from the city of Trubchevsk, Oryol province, made a completely unique journey through Southeast Asia in 1760-1768, which, alas, remained unappreciated by his contemporaries. Most likely, he was the first Russian to visit the Malay Peninsula and reach Chinese Canton (now Guangzhou) by sea, rather than by land.

The merchant Chelobitchikov made his journey for a completely practical purpose and, it seems, did not attach any historical significance to it. He contracted for 300 rubles. go to Calcutta and collect a four-thousand-dollar debt from a Greek merchant stuck there

The merchant Chelobitchikov (although it would be more correct to call him a collector) made his journey for a completely practical purpose and, it seems, did not attach any historical significance to it. He contracted for 300 rubles. go to Calcutta and collect a four-thousand-dollar debt from a Greek merchant stuck there, who owed this amount to his fellow countrymen. Passing through Constantinople, Baghdad and Indian Ocean, he reached Calcutta. But it turned out that the debtor had already died, and Chelobitchikov had to return to his homeland in an incredibly roundabout way: through Malacca, which was owned by the Dutch at that time, the Chinese Canton and the English island of St. Helena (!) to London, and then to Lisbon and Paris. And finally, to St. Petersburg, where I visited for the first time in my life.

This amazing journey of the Trubchev merchant became known relatively recently, when a petition was discovered in the Central State Archives, which he sent in 1770 to Catherine II, asking for his transfer to the St. Petersburg merchants. In it he described his route in sufficient detail. It is surprising that his report is absolutely devoid of any pathos. He describes his nine-year journey quite sparingly, like some kind of country walk. And he offers himself as a consultant on trade with eastern countries.

Philip Efremov. Bukhara - Tibet - Kashmir - India. 1774-1782

The further fate of Chelobitchikov remains unclear (most likely, his message never reached the Empress), but a service man, non-commissioned officer Philip Efremov, who made a similar journey a decade later, was introduced to Catherine II and was even elevated to the dignity of nobility by her.

The adventures of Philip Efremov began in July 1774, when he was captured by the Pugachevites. He escaped, but was captured by the Kirghiz, who sold him into slavery to the Bukhara emir

The adventures of Philip Efremov began in July 1774, when he was captured by the Pugachevites. He escaped, but was captured by the Kirghiz, who sold him into slavery to the Bukhara emir. Efremov was forced to convert to Islam and subjected to severe torture, but he did not betray the Christian faith, and then the emir, admiring his courage, made him his centurion (yuz-bashi). For participating in several battles, he received a large plot of land, but still dreamed of returning to his homeland. Having bought a fake passport, he fled again. All roads to the north were blocked, so he went south. Through Tibet and Kashmir, closed to Europeans, he came to India, and from there to London, where he met the Russian consul, who introduced him directly to the clear eyes of Catherine.

Later, Efremov served as a translator in the Asian Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and in 1786 the first edition of his travel diary was published: “Russian non-commissioned officer Efremov, now a collegiate assessor, nine-year wandering and adventures in Bukharia, Khiva, Persia and India and return from there through England to Russia, written by himself." At the end of the 18th century, the book became a bestseller and went through three editions, but by the middle of the 19th century it was almost forgotten, like its author. Nowadays, the notebook, which Efremov traveled halfway around the world, is kept in the manuscript department of the Pushkin House.

P.S. Soon many other travelers followed in the footsteps of Chelobitchikov and Efremov. The most famous of them are Gerasim Lebedev, the first Russian Indologist, who founded India's first European-style drama theater in Calcutta in the 1790s, the Armenian merchants Grigory and Danil Atanasov, and the Georgian nobleman Rafail Danibegashvili.

Dmitry Rzhannikov

And let's remember and, well, a little

The achievements of Russian scientists in the field of geographical research were of particular importance. Russian travelers We visited places where no European had ever set foot before. In the second half XIX century. their efforts were focused on exploring the interior of Asia.

Expeditions into the depths of Asia began Pyotr Petrovich Semenov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914), geographer, statistician, botanist. He made a number of trips to the mountains of Central Asia, to the Tien Shan. Having headed the Russian Geographical Society, he began to play a leading role in developing plans for new expeditions.

With Russian geographical society activities were related Russian travelers- P. A. Kropotkin and N. M. Przhevalsky.

P. A. Kropotkin in 1864-1866 traveled through Northern Manchuria, the Sayan Mountains and the Vitim Plateau.

Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky (1839-1888) made his first expedition in the Ussuri region, then his paths ran through the most inaccessible areas Central Asia. He crossed Mongolia and Northern China several times, explored the Gobi Desert, Tien Shan, and visited Tibet. He died on the way, at the beginning of his last expedition. In connection with the news of his death, A.P. Chekhov wrote that such “ devotees are needed like the sun». « Constituting the most poetic and cheerful element of society, he added, they excite, console and ennoble... If the positive types created by literature constitute valuable educational material, then the same types given by life itself are beyond all price».

Overseas Russian travel scientists in the second half of the 19th century. have become more targeted. If previously they were mainly limited to description and mapping coastline, then now the life, culture, and customs of local peoples were studied. This is a direction that began in the 18th century. put by S.P. Krasheninnikov, it was continued Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklouho-Maclay (1846-1888). He made his first trips to Canary Islands and across North Africa. In the early 70s he visited a number of islands Pacific Ocean, studied the life of local peoples. He lived for 16 months among the Papuans on the northeastern coast of New Guinea (this place has since been called the Maclay Coast). Russian scientist won trust and love local residents. Then he traveled to the Philippines, Indonesia, Malacca, and returned again to " Maclay coast" The scientist's descriptions of the life and customs, economy and culture of the peoples of Oceania were largely published only after his death.

World geographical science in those years relied heavily on the achievements of Russian researchers. TO end of the 19th century V. an era has ended geographical discoveries . And only the icy expanses of the Arctic and Antarctic still kept many of their secrets. The heroic epic of the latest geographical discoveries, in which Russian explorers took an active part, falls at the beginning of the 20th century.

Chapter No. 8

Lecture No. 36

Russian culture in the 19th century

First half of the 19th century

Education and science

At the very beginning of the 19th century, a system of higher, secondary and primary education was finally formed in Russia. Conducted in 1803 year, reform in the field of education led to the creation in each provincial town gymnasiums, and in every district town there are schools. Parochial schools were also created in rural areas; children of different classes were accepted into them. For driving educational institutions The Ministry of Public Education was created.

IN 1811 was opened Alexandrovsky (Tsarskoye Selo) Lyceum, in which representatives of the highest noble society studied (among them A.S. Pushkin),

The government of Alexander I paid great attention to the development of higher education. In addition to the only Moscow University in Russia, only in the first two decades of the century five new ones were opened: Dorpat (1802), Kazan (1804), Kharkov (1804), Vilna (1804), St. Petersburg (1819).

Under Nicholas I, all types of schools were preserved, but each of them became class-separate. Parochial one-class schools were now intended for representatives of the “lower classes.” They taught the Law of God, literacy and arithmetic for a year. The district three-year schools accepted the children of merchants, artisans, and townspeople. Here they taught the Russian language, arithmetic, geometry, history and geography. The children of nobles, officials, and merchants of the first guild studied in seven-grade gymnasiums. In 1827, the authorities once again pointed out the impossibility of educating the children of serfs in gymnasiums and universities. Control over universities, which were considered sources of “unreliability,” was strengthened. In 1835, universities were stripped of their internal autonomy status.

The number of military educational institutions, in which mainly young nobles were trained, was increasing. The Imperial Military Academy was opened in 1832, and the Artillery and Engineering Academies were opened in 1855.

The growth of industrial production and the development of technology have caused an increase in the need for specialists in technical specialties. In the first half of the 19th century, the number of vocational educational institutions increased. In the early 1830s, the Institute of Civil Engineers, the Forestry Institute, the Polytechnic Institute, the Institute of Railway Engineers, and the Mining Institute were opened in St. Petersburg. A Commercial Academy, an Agricultural School, a Mining School, and a Technical School were opened in Moscow.

The development of domestic science has greatly contributed to the improvement of the education system.

Scientific discoveries

Russian discoverers and travelers

Evfimy Vasilievich Putyatin

In 1852-1855 being the leader of the expedition, he discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands. Together with Nevelsky, he began to secure the Primorsky region in the Far East for Russia.

Art culture "Golden Age" of Russian Literature In the first half of the 19th century, Russian literature entered its “golden age”. She raised the most important social problems, one of the main ones being the problem of strengthening

national identity. Writers and poets turned to the historical past of the country and tried to find answers to modern questions in it.

Important feature The development of literature and art of this time was a rapid change in artistic trends and the simultaneous existence of various artistic styles.. His followers imitated classical ancient art. However, Russian classicism had its own characteristics. If in the second half of the 18th century he was more associated with the ideas of the Enlightenment of the people, then under the influence of the Napoleonic wars the ideas of serving the sovereign and the Fatherland were laid in the basis of the works of classicism.

The most striking example of the combination of literary work and the activities of a historian was the creativity Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin. In the story “Marfa the Posadnitsa, or the Conquest of Novgorod,” he compares the republican (embodied in the history of Novgorod) and autocratic (Moscow) traditions of Russian history. Despite his sympathy for republican ideas, Karamzin makes his choice in favor of autocracy, and thereby a united and strong Russian state. His scientific work “History of the Russian State” was also imbued with these thoughts.

The sentimentalism of Karamzin and other writers manifested itself in the idealization of rural life, the relationship between peasants and landowners, and the moral traits of man in previous eras.

One of the leading trends in the artistic culture of the first decades of the 19th century was romanticism. Romanticism is a movement in literature and art, which is characterized by a special interest in an extraordinary personality, a lonely hero who opposes himself and the world of his soul to the surrounding world.

Russian romanticism was characterized by an increased interest in national identity, traditions, national history, and the establishment of a strong, liberated personality

The creator of Russian romanticism is considered to be Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky, a poet whose works: the ballads “Lyudmila” and “Svetlana” became examples of the style of new literature.

In addition to him, representatives of romanticism were the Decembrist poets K.F. Ryleev, V.K. Kuchelbecker, A.I. Odoevsky.

At the beginning of their work, romantic works were created by the great poets Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin and Mikhail Yurievich Lermontov. Their works, in contrast to the dreamy and sometimes mystical works of Zhukovsky, were characterized by optimism in life and an active position in the struggle for ideals. These features were predominant in the romantic literature of the early 19th century, and it was they who marked the transition to realism, which became the main style in the 3-40s. outstanding examples of literature of this direction were the works of the late Pushkin (rightfully considered the founder of realism in Russian literature) - the historical drama “Boris Godunov”, the stories “The Captain’s Daughter”, “Dubrovsky”, “Belkin’s Tales”, the poem “The Bronze Horseman”, etc. as well as Lermontov’s novel “A Hero of Our Time”.

In the 20-50s. Another new direction is becoming widespread - realism. His followers tried to depict the surrounding reality in its most typical manifestations. One of the trends in the new style was critical realism, revealing the unfavorable aspects of life and the very content of the works demanding changes.

The founder of the “natural school” (critical realism) was Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol. One of the striking works of this artistic movement was his story “The Overcoat”, which, along with his other works: “Dead Souls”, “The Inspector General”, and others, marked the beginning of the “Gogol period” of Russian literature of the 30-40s. “We all came out of Gogol’s “The Overcoat”,” F.M. later noted. Dostoevsky.

Alexander Nikolayevich Ostrovsky showed the realistic world of Russian merchants to the reader in his first drama “Our People – We Will Be Numbered,” who revealed the distinctive features of the representatives of the merchant class, which was rapidly increasing its importance. The playwright worked in his youth at the Moscow Commercial Court, where he gained rich life experience related to the life and customs of the Russian merchants.

In the 40-50s. central place The theme of the fortress village, its customs and morals took over literature. A literary event was the publication of “Notes of a Hunter” by Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev, which described not only the nature of the Central Russian region, but also the serfs, whom he treated with sympathy and kindness.

The hopeless poverty and downtroddenness of the serf peasant were depicted in the stories of Dmitry Vasilyevich Grigorovich “Village” and “Anton the Miserable”. As one of his contemporaries wrote, “not a single educated person of that time... could read about Anton’s misfortunes without tears and not be indignant at the horrors of serfdom.”

The first half of the 19th century was the time of the formation of a modern literary language, based on the traditions of folk speech and replacing the ponderous written language of the previous century.

Theater

In the Russian theater, the change in artistic directions occurred as quickly as in literature.

At the beginning of the 19th century, classicism dominated on the stage of Russian theaters with its inherent ancient and mythological plots and external pomp.

In 20-30 years. a romantic school appears with its characteristic inner experiences of heroes. The largest representative of romanticism in the Russian theater was Pavel Stepanovich Mochalov, who gained particular popularity in the roles of Hamlet (in the tragedy of the same name by W. Shakespeare) and Ferdinand (in F. Schiller’s drama “Cunning and Love”). His acting was distinguished by intense emotionality, and his heroes were distinguished by their selfless struggle for freedom and justice.

In the 40s A new page begins in the history of Russian theater, associated with the development of the realistic direction. In dramaturgy it was associated with the works of Pushkin, Griboyedov, Gogol, Ostrovsky. The founder of realism on the Russian stage was the great actor of the Moscow Maly Theater Mikhail Semenovich Shchepkin, a native of serfs. He was a true reformer of Russian acting art. Shchepkin was the first to propose subordinating the entire performance to a single idea. Each new role of Shchepkin at the Maly Theater became the largest social event in the life of Moscow.

Another remarkable actor from the school of stage realism was Alexander Martynov. His work is associated with the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg. He conveyed with excellent skill the experiences and everyday life of the “little man” of his time.

An important feature of the development of the theater in those years was that the previously unified Petrovsky Theater in Moscow in 1824 was divided into the Bolshoi (intended for opera and ballet productions) and the Maly (dramatic). In St. Petersburg, the most famous was the Alexandrinsky Theater, which differed from the more democratic Moscow Small Theater in its official character.

Music

Music, more than other forms of art, was influenced by the heroic year of 1812. If previously everyday opera had prevailed, now composers turned to the heroic subjects of Russia’s historical past. One of the first in this series was the opera by K.A. Kavos "Ivan Susanin".

The entire first half of the 19th century passed under the sign of the strengthening of Russian national themes and the influence of folk melodies in musical works. Folk motifs sounded in the musical works of A.E. Varlamova, A.A. Alyabyeva, A.L. Gurilev.

The romantic direction in musical art belongs to Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka, who laid the foundations of the Russian national school in music. “The people create music,” he said, and we, artists, only arrange it.”

Glinka managed to establish not only folk, but also realistic traditions in Russian music. He became the founder of the main genres of domestic professional music. The most vivid picture of the composer’s work is given by his opera “A Life for the Tsar” (“Ivan Susanin”). In it, Glinka glorified the simple peasant patriot and at the same time the courage, fortitude and greatness of character of the entire Russian people.

Development national theme Another Russian composer continued in music - Alexander Sergeevich Dargomyzhsky. His main work - the opera "Rusalka" - marked the birth of a new genre of Russian opera - folk psychological drama.

Painting

During this period, there was a rejection of classicism with its characteristic biblical and mythological subjects, admiration for the classical heritage of Greece and Rome. Artists' interest in the personality of man, in the life of not only gods and kings, but also ordinary people, is growing.

The largest figure of classicism in Russian painting was Karl Pavlovich Bryullov. In one of his most famous and large-scale works - “The Last Day of Pompeii” - for the first time he presented the people as a hero, conveying the dignity, heroism and greatness of the common man in conditions of a natural disaster. In this work, Bryullov outlined his desire for realism. It manifested itself in all his paintings: “Self-Portrait”, “Horsewoman”, etc.

The remarkable portraitists Orest Adamovich Kiprensky and Vasily Andreevich Tropinin became prominent representatives of romanticism in painting. Kiprensky created portraits of A.S., remarkable in their expressiveness. Pushkin and A.N. Olenin (president of the Academy of Arts). In them he showed the sublime beginning, the inner world of the moods and experiences of his heroes, known throughout Russia. A distinctive feature of Tropinin’s work was showing a person in his surroundings, doing what he loved. These are his genre portraits “Lacemaker”, “Guitar Player”, “Gold Seamstress”, etc. Tropinin is also famous for the fact that he became the author of the second lifetime portrait of A.S. Pushkin.

Alexander Andreevich Ivanov became one of the greatest masters of Russian painting. The main work of his life was the painting “The Appearance of Christ to the People,” on the creation of which the artist worked for 20 years. The main idea of ​​the picture is confidence in the need for moral renewal of people. Each person from the many depicted in the picture is individual and unique. The artist managed to show the high purpose of enlightenment. A word that can show people the path to a better future.

The founder of critical realism in Russian painting was Pavel Andreevich Fedotov. In his genre paintings he was able to express major social problems. Such were, for example, his works: “Fresh Cavalier” and “Major’s Matchmaking”, in which the drama of situations and the author’s critical position in relation to reality are visible.

The birth of a popular everyday genre in the 19th century is associated with the work of Alexei Gavrilovich Venetsianov. His paintings became a real discovery in Russian painting. They were dedicated to the daily work and life of peasants. In the works of the 20s. “On the arable land. Spring", "At the harvest. Summer”, “Zakharka”, in the portrait gallery of peasants he depicted their life in poetic colors, subtly feeling and conveying the beauty of their native nature. This direction of painting is usually called the “Venetian school”.

I.K. worked in the seascape genre. Aivazovsky. His canvases amaze with their amazingly picturesque depictions of the sea elements. The painting “The Ninth Wave” became especially famous, being a striking example of the master’s unsurpassed professionalism and testifying to the romantic nature of his work during this period.

The center of artistic life in Russia at that time was the School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, opened in Moscow in 1832.

Architecture

In the architecture of the first half of the century, classicism lingered longer than in other areas of artistic creativity. He dominated almost until the 40s. Its pinnacle at the beginning of the 19th century was the style empire style, expressed in massive monumental forms, rich decorations, and strict lines inherited from imperial Rome. An important element of the Empire style were also sculptures that complemented architectural design buildings. Palaces and mansions of the nobility, buildings of higher government institutions, noble assemblies, public places, theaters and even temples.

The beginning of the 19th century was a time of rapid development of the capitals of St. Petersburg and Moscow, as well as the central part of large provincial cities. A feature of the construction of this period was the creation of architectural ensembles - a number of buildings and structures combined into a single whole. It was then that Dvortsovaya, Admiralteyskaya and Senate squares were formed in St. Petersburg, and Teatralnaya in Moscow.

The largest representatives of the Russian Empire style were Andreyan Dmitrievich Zakharov, who created the Admiralty building in St. Petersburg, Andrei Nikiforovich Voronikhin, who built the Kazan Cathedral, which laid the foundation for the ensemble of Nevsky Prospekt.

Karl Ivanovich Rossi also worked in the Empire style, creating the building of the Alexandrinsky Theater, the Public Library, the Senate and the Synod.

In Moscow, the works of Osip Ivanovich Bove were carried out in the Empire style: Red Square reconstructed after the fire of 1812, Theater Square with the Bolshoi Theater, Triumphal Gate, etc.

The architects Domenico Gilardi and Afanasy Grigorievich Grigoriev worked a lot and fruitfully in Moscow. They restored the public buildings of Moscow destroyed by the fire of 1812: Slobodsky Palace, Catherine Institute, Moscow University.

With the beginning of the decline of classicism in the 30s. The “Russian-Byzantine” style begins to spread. Architect Konstantin Andreevich Ton created the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace, the Armory Chamber, the Nikolaevsky (now Leningradsky) Station, etc. in this style.

The largest Orthodox church St. Petersburg was St. Isaac's Cathedral, built in 1818-1858. designed by the architect Auguste Montferrand, the floor was personally supervised by Emperor Nicholas I.

Sculpture

The development of sculpture was closely related to the development of architecture. There are especially many works that are organically integrated into architectural ensembles was created by sculptors Ivan Petrovich Vitali: bust of Pushkin, angels at the lamps on the corners of St. Isaac's Cathedral and Pyotr Karlovich Klodt: “Horse Tamer” on Anichkov Bridge. In St. Petersburg, an equestrian monument to Nicholas I installed on the square in front of St. Isaac's Cathedral.

In 1804, Ivan Petrovich Martos created a monument to Minin and Pozharsky.

Monument to Kozma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky, one of the most famous monuments in Moscow. Located on Red Square, next to St. Basil's Cathedral. It was the first monument in Moscow erected not in honor of the sovereign, but in honor of national heroes. Funds for the monument were collected by popular subscription. Martos worked on the monument from 1804 to 1817. This is the best creation of Martos, who managed to embody in it the high ideals of civic valor and patriotism. The sculptor depicted the moment when Kuzma Minin, pointing his hand towards Moscow, hands Prince Pozharsky an ancient sword and calls on him to stand at the head of the Russian army. Leaning on the shield, the wounded governor rises from his bed, which symbolizes the awakening of national self-awareness in a difficult hour for the Fatherland.

The first half of the 19th century went down in history as the beginning "golden age" Russian artistic culture. It was distinguished by: the rapid change of artistic styles and directions, the mutual enrichment and close interrelation of literature and other areas of art, the strengthening of the social sound of the works created, the organic unity and complementarity of the best examples of Western European and Russian folk culture. All this made the artistic culture of Russia diverse and polyphonic, leading to an increase in its influence on the lives of not only the enlightened strata of society, but also millions of ordinary people.

Second half of the 19th century

Education

The first two decades after the abolition of serfdom passed under the sign of awareness by society and the state of the need for widespread education of the people. The educational reform carried out in 1864 expanded the network of primary educational institutions in Russia, which were divided into three types:

1) zemstvo schools, created by zemstvo forces

2) church schools

3) public schools of the Ministry of Public Education

According to the reform, secondary educational institutions were divided into two types:

-classical gymnasiums– they placed the main emphasis on studying humanities subjects; gymnasium graduates could enter universities without exams;

Real schools differed from gymnasiums in their greater attention to the natural sciences: mathematics, physics, chemistry; real schools prepared for entry into technical higher educational institutions.

Zemstvos began to play a huge role in the spread of education. From 1864 to 1874 alone, almost 10 thousand zemstvo schools were opened. The government gave preference to parochial schools, but the state did not have enough money to maintain them. Therefore, the zemstvo school continued to be the most common type of primary school, covering all provincial and county towns, to also many rural areas. Main type high school there were gymnasiums. In 1861, there were 85 men's gymnasiums in Russia; a quarter of a century later, the number of gymnasiums increased 3 times. By the beginning of the 90s. About 300 women's gymnasiums were opened.

There were also successes in higher education. New universities opened in Tomsk and Odessa. In 1863, a new university charter came into force, expanding the rights of universities to govern themselves.

There were special higher educational institutions - the Medical-Surgical Academy, the Technological, Mining, and Transport Universities, the Electrotechnical University, and the Petrovsky Agricultural Academy. The formation of higher women's education was taking place. By the end of the 19th century, there were over 60 state higher educational institutions in Russia.

However, in general, the literacy rate of the Russian population remained one of the lowest in Europe. According to the 1897 census, the average literacy rate of the country's population was 21.1%. Higher education had just over 1% of the population, with an average of 4%.

Scientific discoveries

Domestic science of the second half of the 19th century reached the forefront. Russian scientists have made a significant contribution to the development of world scientific thought. The reasons for this phenomenon were those favorable changes in the life of the country that came along with the abolition of serfdom; they awakened the initiative of the Russian people.

Literature

The main artistic movement of the second half of the 19th century was critical realism. He was distinguished by increased attention to the display of real life on the basis of its critical perception. The literature of that time was characterized by a spirit of denunciation, a keen interest in the life of the common man, and the desire to find ways and means to combat the vices of society. The most striking example of critical literature is the work of Mikhail Evgrafovich Saltykov-Shchedrin. Russia appears funny, but at the same time scary, in the works of the satirist: “Provincial Sketches”, “The History of a City”, “Lord Golovlev”, “Pompadours and Pompadours”. The artistic device the writer uses is grotesque. In his works he takes to the extreme all existing vices and weaknesses. The writer knows no mercy either for officials, or for representatives of high society, or for merchants, or for the emerging bourgeoisie.

In the 19th century, Russian explorers made a number of outstanding geographical discoveries. In 1803 I. Kruzenshtern on the Nadezhda and Neva completed the 1st Russian round-the-world expedition, exploring the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, Sakhalin, Alaska, and the Aleutian Islands. Yu. Lisyanakiy on the Neva opened one of Hawaiian Islands. In 1819-21 F. Bellingshausen and M. Lazarev on the sloops “Vostok” and “Mirny” made the 2nd Arctic expedition. During its 16.1.1820 ships approached Antarctica, which Bellingshausen called the “ice continent.” After resting in Australia, the expedition moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean and discovered islands in the Tuamotu archipelago. They were named in honor of Kutuzov, Lazarev, Raevsky, Barclay de Tolly, Ermolov and others. After resting in Sydney, the ships returned to Antarctica and discovered about. Peter I and the land of Alexander I. In July 1821, the ships returned to Kronstadt, bringing a huge amount of materials and collections. The development of Russian America is associated with the name of A. Baranov. A merchant from Kargopol had been trading in Alaska since 1790. He amounted to detailed maps Alaska and nearby islands. In 1799 Baranov became the ruler of the colonies in America. In 1804 He founded Novoarkhangelsk. Baranov tried to annex Hawaii to Russia, but failed. Despite his illness, he remained at his post until his death. The territory of the Far East remained a blank spot on the Russian map. In 1848, Nicholas 1 sent to Far East expedition of G. Nevelsky. He proved that Sakhalin is an island and explored the lower reaches of the Amur. E. Putyatin during the round-the-world expedition of 1822-25. discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands and concluded an agreement with Japan. Around the world expeditions committed by V. Golovin-1807-11, F. Litke-1826-29 and compiled 50 cards. I. Voznesensky described Alaska, the Aleutian and Kuril Islands in 1839-40. In 1809 A. Kolodkin began studying the Caspian Sea. In 1848, E. Hoffman and M. Kowalski explored the North. Ural. In 1845, the Russian Geographical Society was created.

>>Russian discoverers and travelers

§ 16. Russian discoverers and travelers

The 19th century was the time of the largest geographical discoveries made by Russian explorers. Continuing the traditions of their predecessors - explorers and travelers of the 17th-18th centuries, they enriched Russians' ideas about the world around them and contributed to the development of new territories that became part of the empire. Russia carried out for the first time old dream: her ships entered the World Ocean.

I. F. Krusenstern and Yu. F. Lisyansky.